[Eponyms related to Nazism neurosciences]. / Cvyazannye s natsizmom eponimy v neironaukakh.

The author considers eponymous names of CNS diseases related to physicians who had actively cooperated with Nazis during the Second World War. The data on the activity of some specialists in the field of neurosciences whose activity did not correspond to ethical values of the physician and the scientist are presented. The author suggests excluding a number of eponymous terms associated with the names of physicians, former Nazis or those who actively cooperated with Nazis.

From ancient Greece to the cognitive revolution: A comprehensive view of physical rehabilitation sciences.

The development of rehabilitation has traditionally focused on measurements of motor disorders and measurements of the improvements produced during the therapeutic process; however, physical rehabilitation sciences have not focused on understanding the philosophical and scientific principles in clinical intervention and how they are interrelated. The main aim of this paper is to explain the foundation stones of the disciplines of physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech/language therapy in recovery from motor disorder. To reach our goals, the mechanistic view and how it is integrated into physical rehabilitation will first be explained. Next, a classification into mechanistic therapy based on an old version (automaton model) and a technological version (cyborg model) will be shown. Then, it will be shown how physical rehabilitation sciences found a new perspective in motor recovery, which is based on functionalism, during the cognitive revolution in the 1960s. Through this cognitive theory, physical rehabilitation incorporated into motor recovery of those therapeutic strategies that solicit the activation of the brain and/or symbolic processing; aspects that were not taken into account in mechanistic therapy. In addition, a classification into functionalist rehabilitation based on a computational therapy and a brain therapy will be shown. At the end of the article, the methodological principles in physical rehabilitation sciences will be explained. It will allow us to go deeper into the differences and similarities between therapeutic mechanism and therapeutic functionalism.

A neurological bias in the history of hysteria: from the womb to the nervous system and Charcot.

Hysteria conceptions, from ancient Egypt until the 19th century Parisian hospital based studies, are presented from gynaecological and demonological theories to neurological ones. The hysteria protean behavioral disorders based on nervous origin was proposed at the beginning, mainly in Great Britain, by the "enlightenment nerve doctors". The following personages are highlighted: Galen, William, Sydenham, Cullen, Briquet, and Charcot with his School. Charcot who had hysteria and hypnotism probably as his most important long term work, developed his conceptions, initially, based on the same methodology he applied to studies of other neurological disorder. Some of his associates followed him in his hysteria theories, mainly Paul Richer and Gilles de La Tourette who produced, with the master's support, expressive books on Salpêtrière School view on hysteria.

A neurological bias in the history of hysteria: from the womb to the nervous system and Charcot / Um viés neurológico na história da histeria: desde o útero até o sistema nervoso e Charcot

Hysteria conceptions, from ancient Egypt until the 19th century Parisian hospital based studies, are presented from gynaecological and demonological theories to neurological ones. The hysteria protean behavioral disorders based on nervous origin was proposed at the beginning, mainly in Great Britain, by the “enlightenment nerve doctors”. The following personages are highlighted: Galen, William, Sydenham, Cullen, Briquet, and Charcot with his School. Charcot who had hysteria and hypnotism probably as his most important long term work, developed his conceptions, initially, based on the same methodology he applied to studies of other neurological disorder. Some of his associates followed him in his hysteria theories, mainly Paul Richer and Gilles de La Tourette who produced, with the master's support, expressive books on Salpêtrière School view on hysteria.

As concepções da histeria, desde o antigo Egito até os estudos baseados nos hospitais parisienses do século 19 são apresentados, a partir de teorias ginecológicas e demonológicas até às neurológicos. A ideia dos transtornos comportamentais multiformes com base na origem nervosa foi proposta no início, principalmente na Grã-Bretanha, pelos “médicos dos nervos do iluminismo”. Os seguintes personagens se destacam: Galeno, William, Sydenham, Cullen, Briquet e Charcot com a sua escola. Charcot tinha a histeria e hipnose provavelmente como o seu trabalho mais importante a longo prazo. Ele desenvolveu suas concepções inicialmente com base na mesma metodologia aplicada a estudos sobre outros transtornos neurológicos. Alguns de seus associados seguiram-no em suas teorias, principalmente Paul Richer e Gilles de La Tourette, que produziram, com o apoio do mestre, livros significativos da Escola da Salpêtrière sobre a histeria.

Intrapartum-related neonatal encephalopathy incidence and impairment at regional and global levels for 2010 with trends from 1990.

BACKGROUND: Intrapartum hypoxic events ("birth asphyxia") may result in stillbirth, neonatal or postneonatal mortality, and impairment. Systematic morbidity estimates for the burden of impairment outcomes are currently limited. Neonatal encephalopathy (NE) following an intrapartum hypoxic event is a strong predictor of long-term impairment. METHODS: Linear regression modeling was conducted on data identified through systematic reviews to estimate NE incidence and time trends for 184 countries. Meta-analyses were undertaken to estimate the risk of NE by sex of the newborn, neonatal case fatality rate, and impairment risk. A compartmental model estimated postneonatal survivors of NE, depending on access to care, and then the proportion of survivors with impairment. Separate modeling for the Global Burden of Disease 2010 (GBD2010) study estimated disability adjusted life years (DALYs), years of life with disability (YLDs), and years of life lost (YLLs) attributed to intrapartum-related events. RESULTS: In 2010, 1.15 million babies (uncertainty range: 0.89-1.60 million; 8.5 cases per 1,000 live births) were estimated to have developed NE associated with intrapartum events, with 96% born in low- and middle-income countries, as compared with 1.60 million in 1990 (11.7 cases per 1,000 live births). An estimated 287,000 (181,000-440,000) neonates with NE died in 2010; 233,000 (163,000-342,000) survived with moderate or severe neurodevelopmental impairment; and 181,000 (82,000-319,000) had mild impairment. In GBD2010, intrapartum-related conditions comprised 50.2 million DALYs (2.4% of total) and 6.1 million YLDs. CONCLUSION: Intrapartum-related conditions are a large global burden, mostly due to high mortality in low-income countries. Universal coverage of obstetric care and neonatal resuscitation would prevent most of these deaths and disabilities. Rates of impairment are highest in middle-income countries where neonatal intensive care was more recently introduced, but quality may be poor. In settings without neonatal intensive care, the impairment rate is low due to high mortality, which is relevant for the scale-up of basic neonatal resuscitation.

[Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev--the founder of the clinical neuropsychiatry].

The article presents main milestones in the career of Vladimir Mikhailovitch Bekhterev. The research in anatomy and physiology of the brain performed by V.M. Bekhterev gave original data of worldwide priority. V.M. Bekhterev significantly improved methodology of neurological examination and differential diagnosis in clinical neuropsychiatry. The scientific heritage of V.M. Bekhterev proves his outstanding role in establishment and development of the neuropsychiatry.

[On Freud's contributions to Villaret's Handwörterbuch der Gesamten Medizin (1888-91)]. / Zu den Beiträgen Sigmund Freuds in Villarets Handwörterbuch der Gesamten Medizin (1888-91).

Starting from an unpublished list of contributors to the handbook, Freud's authorship is established for three unsigned articles about the cranial nerves abducens, accessorius and (in parts) facialis. His authorship of the "Aphasia" article which has been disputed by Scherrer is confirmed. The section "II. physiology" of the article on the brain which has come to be ascribed to him is positively attributed to the physiologist Johannes Gad, the article on infantile paralysis to Alfred Goldscheider.

La neurología en la medicina bizantina. Análisis del Medici libri duodecim de Alejandro de Tralles / Neurology in Byzantine medicine. An analysis of Alexander of Tralles’ Medici libri duodecim

Introducción. Bizancio preservó el conocimiento médico de la antigüedad compilando textos clásicos, pero los médicos bizantinos llevaron a cabo, además, contribuciones originales con referencias a enfermedades neurológicas. Alejandro de Tralles fue uno de los autores destacados del primer periodo de la medicina bizantina. Se formó con su padre y, viajando por el mediterráneo, adquirió nueva información y experiencia. Objetivo. Medici libri duodecim es un tratado de patología y terapéutica en 12 libros. Resume los conocimientos clásicos y la experiencia del autor. Su influencia perduró hasta el inicio del Renacimiento. Trabajamos sobre la edición grecolatina de Henricum Petrum (1556), con especial interés en las referencias a enfermedades neurológicas. Desarrollo. El Libro i está dedicado a enfermedades de cabeza y cerebro. Clasifica la cefalea, siguiendo a Areteo de Capadocia, en cephalalgia, cephalea y hemicrania, y sugiere diferentes mecanismos patogénicos y tratamientos para ellas. La cefalea se considera, con las alteraciones de la memoria o el sueño, dentro de los síntomas iniciales del delirio. Incluye las alteraciones mnésicas entre las enfermedades sistémicas, relacionándolas con patología cardíaca. Distingue entre parálisis (privación de sensibilidad y movilidad en la mitad del cuerpo) y apoplejía (incluida la pérdida de las funciones del alma, que conduce a la muerte). Sobre la epilepsia, Medici libri duodecim sitúa su origen fuera de la cabeza, principalmente en el estómago, y aporta descripciones de auras epilépticas. Conclusiones. El análisis del Medici libri duodecim muestra cómo los médicos bizantinos entendían las enfermedades neurológicas. Su tratamiento estaba basado en sangrías, plantas medicinales y evitación de sustancias nocivas (AU)

Introduction. Byzantium continued Greek and Roman habit of texts compilation, and so, preserved medical knowledge. In addition, assimilating the influence of Monastic and Arabic medicine, Byzantine physicians transmitted original contributions including references to neurological diseases. Alexander of Tralles was one of major exponents of Byzantine medicine. He received his early medical training with his father, and in extensive travels, gathered medical knowledge and experience. Aim. Medici libri duodecim is a treatise on pathology and therapeutics of internal diseases, in twelve books. It comprises views from observation of different diseases. Its influence was prolonged and it was translated and edited until Renaissance. We analyze grecolatin edition by Henricum Petrum (1556), with special interest in neurological disease citations. Development. First of twelve books is dedicated to head and brain diseases. When considering headache, he classifies them, following Aretaeus of Cappadocia, in cephalalgia, cephalea and hemicrania, suggesting different pathogenic mechanisms and therapies. Headache is included among symptoms conducting, as well as memory or sleep disturbances, to delirium. Medici libri duodecim considers memory complaints among systemic diseases, mainly with cardiac involvement. Alexander distinguishes between paralysis (privation of sensibility and mobility concerning half of the body), and apoplexy (including main soul functions loss, even conducting to death). Regarding epilepsy, Medici libri duodecim considers that its origin can be outside the head, mainly in the stomach, and offers us descriptions of epileptic auras. Conclusion. Analysis of Alexander of Tralles’ Medici libri duodecim shows how byzantine physicians understood neurological diseases. Therapeutics was based on venesection, medicinal plants and avoidance of noxious substances (AU)

De secretis mulierum, de chirurgia et de modo medendi libri septem. Neurología y mujer en la literatura médica medieval / De secretis mulierum, de chirurgia et de modo medendi libri septem. Neurology and women in mediaeval medical literature

Introducción y objetivo. La Escuela de Salerno supuso un hito en la enseñanza y la práctica de la medicina en el Occidente medieval. Las mujeres podían ser tanto profesoras como estudiantes, y contribuyeron a su abundante producción científica, destacando Trótula de Salerno, autora, en el siglo xii, del Passionibus mulierum curandorum. De secretis mulierum, de chirurgia et de modo medendi libri septem es un poema médico anónimo de la Escuela de Salerno, descubierto en un manuscrito del siglo xiii. Consta de siete libros y 7.280 hexámetros dactílicos. El primer libro está dedicado a enfermedadesespecíficamente femeninas y el segundo es un tratado de cosmética. Los libros III al VI tratan de cirugía y siguen el esquema clásico a capite ad calcem. El séptimo libro, De modo medendi, se ocupa de la terapéutica. Reseñamos las citas referentes a enfermedades neurológicas, trabajando sobre una traducción crítica de este texto. Desarrollo. El poema propone terapias contra la epilepsia, la cefalea o los acúfenos. El tratamiento que se debe prescribir contra la cefalea es diferente en función de su origen. Propone explicaciones fisiopatológicas para las distintas cefaleas; relaciona la plétora sanguínea con la cefalea hemicraneal, y sugiere un exceso de flema como origen de la cefalea occipital leve. Conclusiones. La patología neurológica está bien representada en esta monografía medieval sobre enfermedades de la mujer. Nos muestra, además, la visión que el médico de Salerno tiene de estos cuadros y el arsenal terapéutico del que dispone, basado fundamentalmente en plantas medicinales (AU)

Introduction and aims. The School of Salerno stood as a landmark in the teaching and practice of medicine in the Western mediaeval world. Women could be both teachers and students and made significant contributions to its abundant scientific production. One of the most important of such women was Trotula of Salerno, the 12th century author of the Passionibus mulierum curandorum. De secretis mulierum, de chirurgia et de modo medendi libri septem is an anonymous medical poem from the School of Salerno, which was discovered in a manuscript from the 13th century. It consists of seven books and 7280 dactylic hexameters. The first book is specifically devoted to women’s diseases and the second is a treaty on cosmetics. Books III and IV deal with surgery and follow the classical a capite ad calcem formula. The seventh book, De modo medendi, deals with therapeutics. We review the references to neurological diseases, using a critical translation of this text to carry out our study. Development. The poem proposes therapies to treat epilepsy, headache or tinnitus. The treatment to be prescribed for headache differs depending on its origin. It puts forward pathophysiological explanations for the different types of headache, it relates engorged blood vessels with hemicranial headache, and suggests an excess of phlegm as the origin of mild occipital headache. Conclusions. Neurological pathology is well represented in this mediaeval monograph on women’s diseases. Furthermore, it also shows us the vision that the Salerno physician has of these conditions and the therapeutic arsenal (based mainly on medicinal plants) that was available for use (AU)

Medical and surgical practice as represented in cultural figures from the pre-conquest Mesoamerican territories.

OBJECTIVE: To review medical and surgical practices in pre-Conquest Mexico in the Olmec and Mayan regions and areas of West Mexico as depicted on terra-cotta, stone, and stelae figures. METHODS: A search was undertaken to locate and describe interesting and unusual medical and surgical figures from the pre-Conquest period of Mesoamerica. Using the details of these figures, descriptions of medical and surgical practices are outlined. RESULTS: Neurosurgery was not a defined or developed surgical technique in the Mesoamerican territories; nevertheless, elements of medical and surgical practice were clearly widespread. Two important cultures that developed in the pre-Conquest period were the Olmec and the Mayan civilizations. Both cultures had a written language; however, most of their manuscripts were destroyed by the Spanish during the Conquest in the 16th and 17th centuries. These early cultures were rich in sculpted artifacts: stone and terra-cotta figures depict scenes that reveal much about this period and, in particular, early medical and neurosurgical practice. A similar but not quite so advanced civilization was also developing in West Mexico in what are now the States of Colima, Nayarit, and Jalisco. Sculptures and figures from these periods illustrate some of the early medical and surgical practices and provide interesting insights into the rich and varied cultures of these Mesoamerican territories. The focus of this article is on two important cultures and periods: the Olmec (1200 bc-200 ad) and the classical Mayan (200 ad-900 ad) societies, as well as the West Mexico cultures (100 bc-500 ad). CONCLUSION: Review of the data and images reveals a sophisticated society clearly interested in detailing various medical and surgical practices in Mesoamerica and hints at some early neurosurgical practices in this era.

Chapter 55: neural transplantation.

The history of cell transplantation in the nervous system is reviewed in four main sections. The "early era" spans the period from 1890 to 1940, during which the first attempts at cell transplantation in the brain were undertaken. Many contemporary themes were first addressed such as surgical factors to achieve survival of grafted cells and how that should be assessed, immunological factors, use of tumors as a readily viable cell source; and use of the anterior eye chamber as a model transplantation site. However, such studies generally exhibited only low levels of viability or successful implantation. The "middle era" from 1940 to 1970 spans the period when the techniques for viable and reliable cell transplantation using embryonic donor tissues implanted into sites with effective vascularization were first established in brain and neuroendocrine systems in a limited number of specialist centers. However, although sometimes impressive, these results were at variance with the prevailing view that the adult mammalian brain is immutable and resistant to plasticity, growth or regeneration, and were largely ignored. The "modern era," since 1970, began with the pioneering studies that combined cell transplantation with the use of improved histochemical and ultrastructural anatomical techniques to demonstrate selectivity, specificity and regenerative capacity of implanted cells, and the slow acceptance that the adult brain does exhibit considerable potential for plasticity and repair. The last three decades have witnessed the identification of reliable and efficient transplantation technologies combined with progressively refined methods of molecular, cellular, biochemical, physiological and functional analysis. This now enables the ready use of cell transplantation as a powerful novel method within the neuroscience tool-kit, which is being used: to analyze normal organization and function of the nervous system; to reveal the biological mechanisms and principles of neuronal development, regeneration and plasticity; and to study the principles of surgically directed cell therapies for promoting plasticity, replacement and repair in response to injury and disease. The final section reviews recent progress in translating cell transplantation to the clinic for application in Parkinson's and other central nervous system diseases.