Rapid formation of antheraxanthin and zeaxanthin in seconds in microalgae and its relation to non-photochemical quenching.

The violaxanthin (V)-antheraxanthin (A)-zeaxanthin (Z) (VAZ) cycle was deemed a non-second-scale process of photoprotection in higher plants and microalgae, but the validity of this view has not been confirmed. To test this view, we explored responses of the VAZ cycle and the relationship between the VAZ cycle and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) under highlight at second and minute scales in Heterosigma akashiwo and Platymonas sp. Both A and Z were generated in H. akashiwo during 15 s of light exposure, whereas only A rapidly accumulated within 15 s of exposure in Platymonas sp. The above results, together with a time-dependent sigmoidal relationship between the VAZ cycle (de-epoxidation state, A/Chl a, and Z/Chl a) and NPQ, proved that the VAZ cycle was a second-scale process related to NPQ. In addition, we found that not all NPQ was dependent on the VAZ cycle and suggested that NPQ model should be carefully modified due to the species-specific proportions of de-epoxidation-dependent NPQ.

Mixture design as a potential tool in modeling the effect of light wavelength on Dunaliella salina cultivation: an alternative solution to increase microalgae lipid productivity for biodiesel production.

For a feasible microalgae biodiesel, increasing lipid productivity is a key parameter. An important cultivation parameter is light wavelength (λ). It can affect microalgal growth, lipid yield, and fatty acid composition. In the current study, the mixture design was used as an alternative to model the influence of the λ on the Dunaliella salina lipid productivity. The illumination was considered to be the mixture of different λ (the light colors blue, red, and green). All experiments were performed with and without sodium acetate (4 g/L), as carbon source, allowing the identification of the impact of the cultivation regimen (autotrophic or mixotrophic). Without sodium acetate, the highest lipid productivity was obtained using blue and red light. The use of mixotrophic cultivations significantly enhanced the results. The optimum obtained result was mixotrophic cultivation under 65% blue and 35% green light, resulting in biomass productivity of 105.06 mgL-1day-1, a lipid productivity of 53.47 mgL-1day-1, and lipid content of 50.89%. The main fatty acids of the oil obtained in this cultivation were oleic acid (36.52%) and palmitic acid (18.31%).

Self-assembly of chlorin-e6 on γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticles: Application for larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti.

Aedes aegypti mosquitos are widespread vectors of several diseases and their control is of primary importance for biological and environmental reasons, and novel safe insecticides are highly desirable. An eco-friendly photosensitizing magnetic nanocarrier with larvicidal effects on Aedes aegypti was proposed. The innovative core-shell hybrid nanomaterial was synthesized by combining peculiar magnetic nanoparticles (called Surface Active Maghemite Nanoparticles - SAMNs, the core) and chlorin-e6 as photosensitizer (constituting the shell) via self-assembly in water. The hybrid nanomaterial (SAMN@chlorin) was extensively characterized and tested for the photocidal activity on larvae of Aedes aegypti. The SAMN@chlorin core-shell nanohybrid did not present any toxic effect in the dark, but, upon light exposure, showed a higher photocidal activity than free chlorin-e6. Moreover, the eco-toxicity of SAMN@chlorin was determined in adults and neonates of Daphnia magna, where delayed toxicity was observed only after prolonged (≥4 h) exposure to intense light, on the green alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and on the duckweed Lemna minor on which no adverse effects were observed. The high colloidal stability, the physico-chemical robustness and the magnetic drivability of the core-shell SAMN@chlorin nanohybrid, accompanied by the high photocidal activity on Aedes aegypti larvae and reduced environmental concerns, can be proposed as a safe alternative to conventional insecticides.

Regulation of Oxygenic Photosynthesis during Trophic Transitions in the Green Alga Chromochloris zofingiensis.

Light and nutrients are critical regulators of photosynthesis and metabolism in plants and algae. Many algae have the metabolic flexibility to grow photoautotrophically, heterotrophically, or mixotrophically. Here, we describe reversible Glc-dependent repression/activation of oxygenic photosynthesis in the unicellular green alga Chromochloris zofingiensis. We observed rapid and reversible changes in photosynthesis, in the photosynthetic apparatus, in thylakoid ultrastructure, and in energy stores including lipids and starch. Following Glc addition in the light, C. zofingiensis shuts off photosynthesis within days and accumulates large amounts of commercially relevant bioproducts, including triacylglycerols and the high-value nutraceutical ketocarotenoid astaxanthin, while increasing culture biomass. RNA sequencing reveals reversible changes in the transcriptome that form the basis of this metabolic regulation. Functional enrichment analyses show that Glc represses photosynthetic pathways while ketocarotenoid biosynthesis and heterotrophic carbon metabolism are upregulated. Because sugars play fundamental regulatory roles in gene expression, physiology, metabolism, and growth in both plants and animals, we have developed a simple algal model system to investigate conserved eukaryotic sugar responses as well as mechanisms of thylakoid breakdown and biogenesis in chloroplasts. Understanding regulation of photosynthesis and metabolism in algae could enable bioengineering to reroute metabolism toward beneficial bioproducts for energy, food, pharmaceuticals, and human health.

Blue-Red LED wavelength shifting strategy for enhancing beta-carotene production from halotolerant microalga, Dunaliella salina.

In the present study, to improve the photosynthetic betacarotene productivity of Dunaliella salina, a blue-red LED wavelength-shifting system (B-R system) was investigated. Dunaliella salina under the B-R system showed enhanced density and beta-carotene productivity compared to D. salina cultivated under single light-emitting diode light wavelengths (blue, white, and red light-emitting diode). Additionally, we developed blue light-adapted D. salina (ALE-D. salina) using an adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) approach. In combination with the B-R system applied to ALE-D. salina (ALE B-R system), the beta-carotene concentration (33.94 ± 0.52 µM) was enhanced by 19.7% compared to that observed for the non-ALE-treated wild-type of D. salina (intact D. salina) under the B-R system (28.34 ± 0.24 µM).

Enhancing Astaxanthin Accumulation in Haematococcus pluvialis by Coupled Light Intensity and Nitrogen Starvation in Column Photobioreactors.

Natural astaxanthin mainly derives from a microalgae producer, Haematococcus pluvialis. The induction of nitrogen starvation and high light intensity is particularly significant for boosting astaxanthin production. However, the different responses to light intensity and nitrogen starvation needed to be analyzed for biomass growth and astaxanthin accumulation. The results showed that the highest level of astaxanthin production was achieved in nitrogen starvation, and was 1.64 times higher than the control group at 11 days. With regard to the optimization of light intensity utilization, it was at 200 µmo/m²/s under nitrogen starvation that the highest astaxanthin productivity per light intensity was achieved. In addition, both high light intensity and a nitrogen source had significant effects on multiple indicators. For example, high light intensity had a greater significant effect than a nitrogen source on biomass dry weight, astaxanthin yield and astaxanthin productivity; in contrast, nitrogen starvation was more beneficial for enhancing astaxanthin content per dry weight biomass. The data indicate that high light intensity synergizes with nitrogen starvation to stimulate the biosynthesis of astaxanthin.

Carotenoid dynamics and lipid droplet containing astaxanthin in response to light in the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis.

The unicellular green alga Haematococcus pluvialis accumulates large amounts of the red ketocarotenoid astaxanthin to protect against environmental stresses. Haematococcus cells that accumulate astaxanthin in the central part (green-red cyst cells) respond rapidly to intense light by distributing astaxanthin diffusively to the peripheral part of the cell within 10 min after irradiation. This response is reversible: when astaxanthin-diffused cells were placed in the dark, astaxanthin was redistributed to the center of the cell. Although Haematococcus possesses several pigments other that astaxanthin, the subcellular distribution and content of each pigment remain unknown. Here, we analyzed the subcellular dynamics and localization of major pigments such as astaxanthin, ß-carotene, lutein, and chlorophylls under light irradiation using time-lapse and label-free hyperspectral imaging analysis. Fluorescence microscopy and freeze-fracture transmission electron microscopy showed that, preceding/following exposure to light, astaxanthin colocalized with lipid droplets, which moved from the center to the periphery through pathways in a chloroplast. This study revealed that photoresponse dynamics differed between astaxanthin and other pigments (chlorophylls, lutein, and ß-carotene), and that only astaxanthin freely migrates from the center to the periphery of the cell through a large, spherical, cytoplasm-encapsulating chloroplast as a lipid droplet. We consider this to be the Haematococcus light-protection mechanism.