Process Mapping and Activity-Based Costing of the Intravitreal Injection Procedure.

PURPOSE/AIM OF THE STUDY: To quantify the cost of performing an intravitreal injection (IVI) utilizing activity-based costing (ABC), which allocates a cost to each resource involved in a manufacturing process. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A prospective, observational cohort study was performed at an urban, multi-specialty ophthalmology practice affiliated with an academic institution. Fourteen patients scheduled for an IVI-only visit with a retina ophthalmologist were observed from clinic entry to exit to create a process map of time and resource utilization. Indirect costs were allocated with ABC and direct costs were estimated based on process map observations, internal accounting records, employee interviews, and nationally-reported metrics. The primary outcome measure was the cost of an IVI procedure in United States dollars. Secondary outcomes included operating income (cost subtracted from revenue) of an IVI and patient-centric time utilization for an IVI. RESULTS: The total cost of performing an IVI was $128.28; average direct material, direct labor, and overhead costs were $2.14, $97.88, and $28.26, respectively. Compared to the $104.40 reimbursement set by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services for Current Procedural Terminology code 67028, this results in a negative operating income of -$23.88 (-22.87%). The median clinic resource-utilizing time to complete an IVI was 32:58 minutes (range [19:24-1:28:37]); the greatest bottleneck was physician-driven electronic health record documentation. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides an objective and accurate cost estimate of the IVI procedure and illustrates how ABC may be applied in a clinical context. Our findings suggest that IVIs may currently be undervalued by payors.

Patient-initiated follow-up for low-risk endometrial cancer: a cost-analysis evaluation.

OBJECTIVE: Risk stratification has resulted in patient-initiated follow-up being introduced for low-risk endometrial cancer in place of routine hospital follow-up. The financial benefit to the patient and the healthcare economy of patient-initiated follow-up, as compared with hospital follow-up, has yet to be explored. In this study, we explored the potential impact for both the healthcare economy and patients of patient-initiated follow-up. METHODS: Women diagnosed with low-risk endometrial cancer enrolled on a patient-initiated follow-up scheme between November 2014 and September 2018 were included. Data on the number of telephone calls to the nurse specialists and clinic appointments attended were collected prospectively. The number of clinic appointments that would have taken place if the patient had continued on hospital follow-up, rather than starting on patient-initiated follow-up, was calculated and costs determined using standard National Health Service (NHS) reference costs. The time/distance traveled by patients from their home address to the hospital clinic was calculated and used to determine patient-related costs. RESULTS: A total of 187 patients with a median of 37 (range 2-62) months follow-up after primary surgery were enrolled on the scheme. In total, the cohort were scheduled to attend 1673 appointments with hospital follow-up, whereas they only attended 69 clinic appointments and made 107 telephone contacts with patient-initiated follow-up. There was a 93.5% reduction in costs from a projected £194 068.00 for hospital follow-up to £12 676.33 for patient-initiated follow-up. The mean patient-related costs were reduced by 95.6% with patient-initiated follow-up. The total mileage traveled by patients for hospital follow-up was 30 891.4 miles, which was associated with a mean traveling time per patient of 7.41 hours and clinic/waiting time of 7.5 hours compared with 1165.8 miles and 0.46 hours and 0.5 hours, respectively, for patient-initiated follow-up. CONCLUSION: The introduction of a patient self-management follow-up scheme for low-risk endometrial cancer was associated with financial/time saving to both the patient and the healthcare economy as compared with hospital follow-up.

Maryland's Experiment With Capitated Payments For Rural Hospitals: Large Reductions In Hospital-Based Care.

In 2010 Maryland replaced fee-for-service payment for some rural hospitals with "global budgets" for hospital-provided services called Total Patient Revenue (TPR). A principal goal was to incentivize hospitals to manage resources efficiently. Using a difference-in-differences design, we compared eight TPR hospitals to seven similar non-TPR Maryland hospitals to estimate how TPR affected hospital-provided services. We also compared health care use by "treated" patients in TPR counties to that of patients in counties containing control hospitals. Inpatient admissions and outpatient services fell sharply at TPR hospitals, increasingly so over the period that TPR was in effect. Emergency department (ED) admission rates declined 12 percent, direct (non-ED) admissions fell 23 percent, ambulatory surgery center visits fell 45 percent, and outpatient clinic visits and services fell 40 percent. However, for residents of TPR counties, visits to all Maryland hospitals fell by lesser amounts and Medicare spending increased, which suggests that some care moved outside of the global budget. Nonetheless, we could not assess the efficiency of these shifts with our data, and some care could have moved to more efficient locations. Our evidence suggests that capitation models require strong oversight to ensure that hospitals do not respond by shifting costs to other providers.

Backlash Against Copay Accumulators.

With accumulators, the value of any copay assistance cards or coupons does not count toward out-of-pocket medicine costs that are applied toward deductibles. It's a cost-shifting tool that's facing pushback from patients, providers, and others saying that accumulators will hurt public health.

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Referral patterns and implementation costs of the Partners in Recovery initiative in Gippsland: learnings for the National Disability Insurance Scheme.

OBJECTIVE:: The purpose of this paper is to provide some learnings for the NDIS from the referral pattern and cost of implementing the Partners in Recovery initiative of Gippsland. METHOD:: Information on referral areas made for each consumer was collated from support facilitators. Cost estimates were determined using budget estimates, administrative costs and a literature review and are reported from a government perspective. RESULTS:: Sixty-three per cent of all referrals were made to organisations that provided multiple types of services. Thirty-one per cent were to Mental Health Community Support Services. Eighteen per cent of referrals were made to clinical mental health services. The total cost of providing the service for a consumer per year (set-up and ongoing) was estimated to be AUD$15,755 and the ongoing cost per year was estimated to be AUD$13,434. The cost of doing nothing is likely to cost more in the longer term, with poor mental health outcomes such as hospital admission, unemployment benefits, prison, homelessness and psychiatric residential care. CONCLUSIONS:: Supporting recovery in persons with Severe and Persistent Mental Illness is likely to be economically more beneficial than not doing so. Recovery can be better supported when frequently utilised services are co-located. These might be some learnings for the NDIS.

Impacto de diferentes métodos de asignación de costos indirectos estructurales de hospitales públicos, en el ranking costo-efectividad de 47 intervenciones en salud / Impact of different overhead cost allocation methods of public hospitals on the cost-effectiveness ranking of 47 health programs

Background: Costs allocation methods are important for economic evaluation of health care. Aim: To evaluate the impact of overhead costs rates of different hospitals on the cost-effectiveness rankings of health programs. Material and Methods: Using the cost reports from eight hospitals, a Montecarlo simulation was implemented, programming the complete micro-costing algorithm to calculate the final cost of 47 health care interventions, from the health sector perspective. The independent variables considered were the overhead cost rates per establishment and the actual overhead costs. Changing these variables, resulted in changes of the final cost of interventions and cost-effectiveness ratios. Finally the probabilities of changes in the cost-effectiveness ranking of each intervention were calculated. Results: Thirteen programs did not change their ranking order. However, 34 interventions modified their position with different occurrence probabilities. In the new proposed ranking, 21 programs changed their position from one to six places. Conclusions: Different overhead cost rates, representing different assignation forms, have a relative impact in the cost-effectiveness order. Montecarlo simulation can help to improve the accuracy of ranking assignment.

Hospitalizaciones y análisis económico en pacientes psicóticos con palmitato de paliperidona de larga duración / Hospitalizations and economic analysis in psychotic patients with paliperidone palmitate long-acting injection

Objetivo del estudio. Prevenir las hospitalizaciones en los trastornos psicóticos es un objetivo importante, por eso los antipsicóticos de larga duración son una buena opción debido a que aseguran un mayor control de la adherencia. Por otra parte, en el actual contexto económico, los estudios farmacoeconómicos son necesarios. Nosotros hemos estimado el efecto del palmitato de paliperidona de larga duración (PP-LAI) en la prevención y hemos calculado el coste económico en los 12 meses que preceden al inicio del tratamiento con PP-LAI y los 12 meses posteriores. Métodos. Estudio de imagen en espejo de 71 pacientes diagnosticados de trastorno psicótico y tratados con PP-LAI. En el primer análisis medimos a lo largo de un año: número de hospitalizaciones/año, número de hospitalizaciones en días, número de atenciones en Urgencias/año y si hay medicación antipsicótica asociada al tratamiento de larga duración. Después de esta fase, aplicamos la Ley de Tasas de la Generalitat Valenciana para el análisis económico y estimamos el gasto por hospitalización (5.640,41 Euros) y por urgencia hospitalaria (187,61 Euros). Resumen de los resultados. Después de un año de tratamiento con PP-LAI (dosis media = 130,65 mg/mes) obtuvimos mejores datos de las variables asistenciales: reducción del total de hospitalizaciones, 78,8% (p=0,009); acortamiento en los días de hospitalización, 89,4% (p=0,009); disminución en el número de asistencias en Urgencias, 79,1% (p=0,002); reducción en la proporción de antipsicóticos asociados al tratamiento de larga duración, 21% (p<0,0001); incremento de la monoterapia, 53,8% (p<0,0001). Además, después de 12 meses de tratamiento con PP-LAI obtuvimos una reducción en el gasto de los pacientes hospitalizados (ahorro de 175.766,54 Euros) y un incremento en el gasto de los antipsicóticos del 32% (equivalente a 151.126,92 Euros). Conclusiones. PP-LAI puede ser una terapia efectiva para el tratamiento de pacientes con trastornos psicóticos severos: mejora la estabilidad sintomática y puede prevenir las hospitalizaciones con un control sintomático coste-efectivo (AU)

Purpose of the study. Prevent hospitalizations in psychotic disorders is an important aim, so long-acting antipsychotic is a good option that can control better the correct adherence. Moreover, in the current economic context pharmacoeconomic studies are necessary. We estimate the effect in prevention of paliperidone palmitate long-acting injection (PP-LAI) and calculate the economic cost in the 12 months preceding the start of treatment with PP-LAI and 12 months later. Methods. Mirror image study of 71 outpatients diagnosed with psychotic disorders and treated with PP-LAI. In a first analysis, we measured along one year: number of hospitalizations/year, number of hospitalization in days, number of emergency assists/year and if there is antipsychotics associated to long-acting treatment. After this phase, we applied Fees Act of Valencia for economic analysis and estimate of the cost per hospitalization (Euros 5,640.41) and hospital emergency (Euros 187.61). Summary of results. fter one year of treatment with PP-LAI (mean dose=130.65mg/month), we obtained greater numbers in assistance variables: total hospitalizations decrease, 78.8% (P=.009); shortening in hospitalization days, 89.4% (P=.009); abridgement of number of emergency assists, 79.1% (P=.002); decrease of rate of antipsychotics associated to long-acting treatment, 21% (P<.0001); increase in monotherapy, 53.8% (P<.0001). Therefore, after 12 months of treatment with PP-LAI we obtained a reduction in inpatient spending (savings of Euros 175,766.54) and increased spending on antipsychotics 32% (equivalent to Euros 151,126.92). Conclusions. PP-LAI can be an effective therapy for the treatment of patients with severe psychotic disorders: improves symptomatic stability and can prevent hospitalizations with cost-effective symptom control (AU)

[Changing the internal cost allocation (ICA) on DRG shares : Example of computed tomography in a university radiology setting]. / Umstellung der internen Leistungsverrechnung (ILV) auf DRG-Anteile : Beispiel der Computertomographie einer universitären Radiologie.

BACKGROUND: In hospitals, the radiological services provided to non-privately insured in-house patients are mostly distributed to requesting disciplines through internal cost allocation (ICA). In many institutions, computed tomography (CT) is the modality with the largest amount of allocation credits. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this work is to compare the ICA to respective DRG (Diagnosis Related Groups) shares for diagnostic CT services in a university hospital setting. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The data from four CT scanners in a large university hospital were processed for the 2012 fiscal year. For each of the 50 DRG groups with the most case-mix points, all diagnostic CT services were documented including their respective amount of GOÄ allocation credits and invoiced ICA value. As the German Institute for Reimbursement of Hospitals (InEK) database groups the radiation disciplines (radiology, nuclear medicine and radiation therapy) together and also lacks any modality differentiation, the determination of the diagnostic CT component was based on the existing institutional distribution of ICA allocations. RESULTS: Within the included 24,854 cases, 63,062,060 GOÄ-based performance credits were counted. The ICA relieved these diagnostic CT services by € 819,029 (single credit value of 1.30 Eurocent), whereas accounting by using DRG shares would have resulted in € 1,127,591 (single credit value of 1.79 Eurocent). The GOÄ single credit value is 5.62 Eurocent. CONCLUSIONS: The diagnostic CT service was basically rendered as relatively inexpensive. In addition to a better financial result, changing the current ICA to DRG shares might also mean a chance for real revenues. However, the attractiveness considerably depends on how the DRG shares are distributed to the different radiation disciplines of one institution.

Establishing Cost-Effective Allocation of Proton Therapy for Breast Irradiation.

PURPOSE: Cardiac toxicity due to conventional breast radiation therapy (RT) has been extensively reported, and it affects both the life expectancy and quality of life of affected women. Given the favorable oncologic outcomes in most women irradiated for breast cancer, it is increasingly paramount to minimize treatment side effects and improve survivorship for these patients. Proton RT offers promise in limiting heart dose, but the modality is costly and access is limited. Using cost-effectiveness analysis, we provide a decision-making tool to help determine which breast cancer patients may benefit from proton RT referral. METHODS AND MATERIALS: A Markov cohort model was constructed to compare the cost-effectiveness of proton versus photon RT for breast cancer management. The model was analyzed for different strata of women based on age (40 years, 50 years, and 60 years) and the presence or lack of cardiac risk factors (CRFs). Model entrants could have 1 of 3 health states: healthy, alive with coronary heart disease (CHD), or dead. Base-case analysis assumed CHD was managed medically. No difference in tumor control was assumed between arms. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis was performed to test model robustness and the influence of including catheterization as a downstream possibility within the health state of CHD. RESULTS: Proton RT was not cost-effective in women without CRFs or a mean heart dose (MHD) <5 Gy. Base-case analysis noted cost-effectiveness for proton RT in women with ≥1 CRF at an approximate minimum MHD of 6 Gy with a willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000/quality-adjusted life-year. For women with ≥1 CRF, probabilistic sensitivity analysis noted the preference of proton RT for an MHD ≥5 Gy with a similar willingness-to-pay threshold. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the cost of treatment, scenarios do exist whereby proton therapy is cost-effective. Referral for proton therapy may be cost-effective for patients with ≥1 CRF in cases for which photon plans are unable to achieve an MHD <5 Gy.

Estudio comparativo de concordancia y costes entre la prueba de la tuberculina y QuantiFERON ®-TB Gold In-Tube en el diagnóstico de la infección latente tuberculosa en contactos de pacientes con tuberculosis pulmonar / Comparative study of concordance and costs between tuberculin skin test and QuantiFERON ®-TB Gold In-Tube in the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection among contacts of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis

Introducción: El diagnóstico de la infección latente tuberculosa (ILT) es posible realizarlo mediante la prueba de la tuberculina (PT) o bien a través de las denominadas técnicas de interferon-γ release assays (IGRAS, «análisis de liberación del interferón-γ»), siendo QuantiFERON®-TB Gold In-Tube (QF-G-IT) la más usada. Los IGRAS permiten evitar algunos inconvenientes de la PT, especialmente la reacción cruzada con la vacuna con bacilo de Calmette-Guérin (BCG). No obstante, también presentan algunos problemas, como son los derivados del coste de la técnica, así como el ser un método de laboratorio que precisa una infraestructura y experiencia adecuadas. No existe un claro consenso sobre cuál de las técnicas debería utilizarse de forma prioritaria para el diagnóstico de la ILT. Método: Se trata de un estudio comparativo entre la PT y la QF-G-IT en nuestra cohorte de contactos de pacientes con tuberculosis pulmonar durante el período de estudio (n = 101). Se realizó un análisis de la concordancia global y por grupos según los contactos estuvieran vacunados con BCG o no. Se realizó, además, un estudio de costes de ambas técnicas y de las estrategias diagnósticas basadas en ellas. Resultados: La concordancia entre la PT y la QF-G-IT fue aceptable en el global de la muestra, pero muy buena en el grupo de no vacunados. Se registraron muy pocos casos de valores indeterminados. El estudio de costes mostró que la PT era más económica que la QF-G-IT; sin embargo, al analizar el coste de las estrategias según cada técnica, la PT mostró un mayor coste-beneficio. Conclusión: Aconsejamos considerar QF-G-IT como la única y preferente técnica para el diagnóstico de la ILT en contactos convivientes, basados en una buena concordancia general entre ambas técnicas (más aún si eliminamos el efecto de la vacuna) y un estudio de costes favorable a QF-G-IT (AU)

Introduction: Recently diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) can be made using the tuberculin skin test (TST) or by techniques known as interferon-γ release assays (IGRAS), being QuantiFERON®-TB Gold In-Tube (QF-G-IT) the most used. The IGRAS avoid some drawbacks of the TST, especially cross-reaction with bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, but also present some problems such as those arising from cost and the need of having an adequate infrastructure and experience. There is no clear consensus on which technique should be preferentially used for the diagnosis of LTBI. Methods: This is a comparative study between the TST and QT-G-IT in a cohort of contacts of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis during the study period. An analysis of global agreement and groups was performed according to whether the contacts were vaccinated with BCG or not. A study of costs of both techniques and diagnostic strategies based on these techniques was performed. Results: The agreement between TST and QF-G-IT was acceptable in the whole sample yet it was very good in the unvaccinated group. Few cases of indeterminate values were recorded. The cost study showed that TST was cheaper than QF-G-IT; however when we analyzed the cost of the strategies according to each technique, the QF-G-IT showed a better cost-benefit. Conclusion: We suggest considering QF-G-IT as the only preferred technique for the diagnosis of LTBI in household contacts, based on good overall agreement between the 2 techniques (even if we eliminate the effect of the vaccine) and a cost analysis favorable to QF-G-IT (AU)

[Improvement of cost allocation in gastroenterology by introduction of a novel service catalogue covering the complete spectrum of endoscopic procedures]. / Verbesserung der Kostenkalkulation in der Gastroenterologie durch Einführung eines neuen Leistungskatalogs für alle endoskopischen Prozeduren.

BACKGROUND: The German hospital reimbursement system (G-DRG) is incomplete for endoscopic interventions and fails to differentiate between complex and simple procedures. This is caused by outdated methods of personnel-cost allocation. METHODS: To establish an up-to-date service catalogue 50 hospitals made their anonymized expense-budget data available to the German-Society-of-Gastroenterology (DGVS). 2.499.900 patient-datasets (2011-2013) were used to classify operation-and-procedure codes (OPS) into procedure-tiers (e.g. colonoscopy with biopsy/colonoscopy with stent-insertion). An expert panel ranked these tiers according to complexity and assigned estimates of physician time. From June to November 2014 exact time tracking data for a total 38.288 individual procedures were collected in 119 hospitals to validate this service catalogue. RESULTS: In this three-step process a catalogue of 97 procedure-tiers was established that covers 99% of endoscopic interventions performed in German hospitals and assigned validated mean personnel-costs using gastroscopy as standard. Previously, diagnostic colonoscopy had a relative personnel-cost value of 1.13 (compared to gastroscopy 1.0) and rose to 2.16, whereas diagnostic ERCP increased from 1.7 to 3.62, more appropriately reflecting complexity. Complex procedures previously not catalogued were now included (e.g. gastric endoscopic submucosal dissection: 16.74). DISCUSSION: This novel service catalogue for GI-endoscopy almost completely covers all endoscopic procedures performed in German hospitals and assigns relative personnel-cost values based on actual physician time logs. It is to be included in the national coding recommendation and should replace all prior inventories for cost distribution. The catalogue will contribute to a more objective cost allocation and hospital reimbursement - at least until time tracking for endoscopy becomes mandatory.

[Cost-conscious medical decisions. Normative guidance within the conflicting demands of ethics and economics]. / Kostenbewusste ärztliche Entscheidungen. Normative Orientierung im Spannungsfeld zwischen Ethik und Ökonomie.

BACKGROUND: Under the current conditions in the health care system, physicians inevitably have to take responsibility for the cost dimension of their decisions on the level of single cases. This article, therefore, discusses the question how physicians can integrate cost considerations into their clinical decisions at the microlevel in a medically rational and ethically justified way. DISCUSSION: We propose a four-step model for "ethical cost-consciousness": (1) forego ineffective interventions as required by good evidence-based medicine, (2) respect individual patient preferences, (3) minimize the diagnostic and therapeutic effort to achieve a certain treatment goal, and (4) forego expensive interventions that have only a small or unlikely (net) benefit for the patient. Steps 1-3 are ethically justified by the principles of beneficence, nonmaleficence, and respect for autonomy, step 4 by the principles of justice. For decisions on step 4, explicit cost-conscious guidelines should be developed locally or regionally. Following the four-step model can contribute to ethically defensible, cost-conscious decision-making at the microlevel. In addition, physicians' rationing decisions should meet basic standards of procedural fairness. Regular cost-case discussions and clinical ethics consultation should be available as decision support. Implementing step 4, however, requires first of all a clear political legitimation with the corresponding legal framework.

Risk selection and cost shifting in a prospective physician payment system: evidence from Ontario.

We study the risk-selection and cost-shifting behavior of physicians in a unique capitation payment model in Ontario, using the incentive to enroll and care for complex and vulnerable patients as a case study. This incentive, which is incremental to the regular capitation payment, ceases after the first year of patient enrollment and may therefore impact on the physician's decision to continue to enroll the patient. Furthermore, because the enrolled patients in Ontario can seek care from any provider, the enrolling physician may shift some treatment costs to other providers. Using longitudinal administrative data and a control group of physicians in the fee-for-service model who were eligible for the same incentive, we find no evidence of either patient 'dumping' or cost shifting. These results highlight the need to re-examine the conventional wisdom about risk selection for physician payment models that significantly deviate from the stylized capitation model.