A novel electrochemical sensor based on a Cu-coordinated molecularly imprinted polymer and MoS2 modified chitin-derived carbon for selective detection of dextromethorphan.

Dextromethorphan (DXM) is a widely utilized central antitussive agent, which is frequently abused by individuals seeking its recreational effect. But DXM overdose can cause some adverse effects, including brain damage, loss of consciousness, and cardiac arrhythmias, and hence its detection is significant. Herein, an electrochemical sensor based on a Cu-coordinated molecularly imprinted polymer (Cu-MIP) was fabricated for its detection. For constructing the sensor, nitrogen-doped carbon nanosheets (CCNs) were prepared through calcining chitin under an argon atmosphere, and molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) was allowed to grow on their surface. Subsequently, the obtained MoS2/CCNs composite was employed to modify a glassy carbon electrode (GCE), and the Cu-MIP was electrodeposited on the electrode in a Cu-1,10-phenanthroline (Cu-Phen) solution containing DXM, where Cu2+ played a role in facilitating electron transfer and binding DXM. Due to the large specific surface area, good electrocatalytic properties and recognition of the resulting composite, the resulting Cu-MIP/MoS2/CCNs/GCE showed high selectivity and sensitivity. Under optimized experimental conditions, the peak current of DXM and its concentration exhibited a good linear relationship over the concentration range of 0.1-100 µM, and the limit of detection (S/N = 3) was 0.02 µM. Furthermore, the electrochemical sensor presented good stability, and it was successfully used for the determination of DXM in pharmaceutical, human serum and urine samples.

Predicting steady-state endoxifen plasma concentrations in breast cancer patients by CYP2D6 genotyping or phenotyping. Which approach is more reliable?

In previous studies, steady-state Z-endoxifen plasma concentrations (ENDOss) correlated with relapse-free survival in women on tamoxifen (TAM) treatment for breast cancer. ENDOss also correlated significantly with CYP2D6 genotype (activity score) and CYP2D6 phenotype (dextromethorphan test). Our aim was to ascertain which method for assessing CYP2D6 activity is more reliable in predicting ENDOss. The study concerned 203 Caucasian women on tamoxifen-adjuvant therapy (20 mg q.d.). Before starting treatment, CYP2D6 was genotyped (and activity scores computed), and the urinary log(dextromethorphan/dextrorphan) ratio [log(DM/DX)] was calculated after 15 mg of oral dextromethorphan. Plasma concentrations of TAM, N-desmethyl-tamoxifen (ND-TAM), Z-4OH-tamoxifen (4OH-TAM) and ENDO were assayed 1, 4, and 8 months after first administering TAM. Multivariable regression analysis was used to identify the clinical and laboratory variables predicting log-transformed ENDOss (log-ENDOss). Genotype-derived CYP2D6 phenotypes (PM, IM, NM, EM) and log(DM/DX) correlated independently with log-ENDOss. Genotype-phenotype concordance was almost complete only for poor metabolizers, whereas it emerged that 34% of intermediate, normal, and ultrarapid metabolizers were classified differently based on log(DM/DX). Multivariable regression analysis selected log(DM/DX) as the best predictor, with patients' age, weak inhibitor use, and CYP2D6 phenotype decreasingly important: log-ENDOss = 0.162 - log(DM/DX) × 0.170 + age × 0.0063 - weak inhibitor use × 0.250 + IM × 0.105 + (NM + UM) × 0.210; (R2  = 0.51). In conclusion, log(DM/DX) seems superior to genotype-derived CYP2D6 phenotype in predicting ENDOss.

Identifying Levorphanol Ingestion Using Urine Biomarkers in Health Care Patients.

BACKGROUND: Levorphanol is a long-acting opioid analgesic that is an optical isomer of dextrorphan, a metabolite of the over-the-counter cough suppressant dextromethorphan. Providers prescribing levorphanol for pain management may need to assess compliance through urine drug testing, as this agent is subject to abuse. Therefore, it is important to differentiate between dextromethorphan and levorphanol ingestion. OBJECTIVES: This article is the first to report urine concentrations of levorphanol/dextrorphan and 3-hydroxymorphinan in human urine and assesses the need for an enantiomeric analysis to distinguish between dextromethorphan and levorphanol ingestion. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective data review. METHODS: Medication compliance test results were reviewed for 521 urine samples submitted to Aegis Sciences Corporation between July 2014 and July 2016. Samples were included in this analysis if dextromethorphan or levorphanol testing was requested by the ordering provider. Urine samples were hydrolyzed with beta-glucuronidase and analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). An enantiomeric analysis to distinguish levorphanol from dextrorphan and (-)-3-hydroxymorphinan (norlevorphanol) from (+)-3-hydroxymorphinan was not performed. RESULTS: Nineteen urine samples with levorphanol listed as prescribed had median levorphanol/dextrorphan and 3-hydroxymorphinan concentrations of 1,881 ng/mL and 141 ng/mL, respectively. One-quarter of the urine samples with dextromethorphan listed as prescribed did not have any detectable dextromethorphan or 3-methoxymorphinan. LIMITATIONS: An enantiomeric analysis was not utilized with the LC-MS/MS testing method; therefore, levorphanol could not be differentiated from dextrorphan, and (-)-3-hydroxymorphinan could not be differentiated from (+)-3-hydroxymorphinan. The hepatic and renal function for these patients was unknown; however, both could impact the metabolism, distribution, and excretion of levorphanol biomarkers in urine. The dextromethorphan and/or levorphanol dose and timing of last ingestion was also not assessed. CONCLUSIONS: It may be impossible to distinguish between levorphanol and dextromethorphan ingestion based on urine biomarkers, unless dextromethorphan or 3-methoxymorphinan is present or an enantiomeric analysis is performed. Therefore, the potential exists for patients prescribed levorphanol to ingest dextromethorphan and appear compliant with levorphanol therapy. This should prompt clinicians to consider the parameters of their laboratory's testing method when interpreting levorphanol drug test results. KEY WORDS: Levorphanol, dextrorphan, dextromethorphan, 3-hydroxymorphinan, urine testing, urine concentration, drug testing, medication compliance testing.

In vivo characterization of CYP2D6*12, *29 and *84 using dextromethorphan as a probe drug: a case report.

CYP2D6*84 was first described in a Black South African subject, however, its function remains unknown. Astrolabe, a probabilistic scoring tool developed in our laboratory to call genotypes from whole genome sequence, identified CYP2D6*84 in a trio. The father presented with intermediate metabolism when challenged with the CYP2D6 probe drug dextromethorphan (DM/dextrorphan [DX] = 0.0839). Since his second allele, CYP2D6*12, is nonfunctional, the observed activity is derived by CYP2D6*84. This finding suggests that the allele's hallmark P267H causes decreased activity toward DM and that this allele should receive a value of 0.5 for Activity Score calculations. The mother's DM/DX of 0.0543 was consistent with the decreased activity classification of CYP2D6*29. The child, a critically ill neonate, was not phenotyped, but predicted to be a normal metabolizer.

Pharmacokinetics of dextromethorphan and its metabolites in horses following a single oral administration.

Dextromethorphan is an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) non-competitive antagonist commonly used in human medicine as an antitussive. Dextromethorphan is metabolized in humans by cytochrome P450 2D6 into dextrorphan, which is reported to be more potent than the parent compound. The goal of this study is to describe the metabolism of and determine the pharmacokinetics of dextromethorphan and its major metabolites following oral administration to horses. A total of 23 horses received a single oral dose of 2 mg/kg. Blood samples were collected at time 0 and at various times up to 96 h post drug administration. Urine samples were collected from 12 horses up to 120 h post administration. Plasma and urine samples were analyzed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and the resulting data analyzed using non-compartmental analysis. The Cmax , Tmax , and the t1/2 of dextromethorphan were 519.4 ng/mL, 0.55 h, and 12.4 h respectively. The area under the curve of dextromethorphan, free dextrorphan, and conjugated dextrorphan were 563.8, 2.19, and 6,691 h*ng/mL respectively. In addition to free and glucuronidated dextrorphan, several additional glucuronide metabolites were identified in plasma, including hydroxyl-desmethyl dextrorphan, desmethyl dextrorphan, and three forms of hydroxylated dextrorphan. Dextromethorphan was found to be eliminated from the urine predominately as the O-demethylated metabolite, dextrorphan. Several additional metabolites including several novel hydroxy-dextrorphan metabolites were also detected in the urine in both free and glucuronidated forms. No significant undesirable behavioural effects were noted throughout the duration of the study. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Effect of Yokukansan, a Traditional Herbal Preparation Used for the Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia, on the Drug-Metabolizing Enzyme Activities in Healthy Male Volunteers.

The concomitant use of herb and prescription medications is increasing globally. Herb-drug interactions are therefore a clinically important problem. Yokukansan (YKS), a Japanese traditional herbal medicine, is one of the most frequently used herbal medicines. It is effective for treating the behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. We investigated the potential effects of YKS on drug-metabolizing enzyme activities in humans. An open-label repeat-dose study was conducted in 26 healthy Japanese male volunteers (age: 22.7±2.3 years) with no history of smoking. An 8-h urine sample was collected after a 150-mg dose of caffeine and a 30-mg dose of dextromethorphan before and after the administration of YKS (2.5 g, twice a day for 1 week). The activities of cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A2, CYP2D6, CYP3A, xanthine oxidase (XO) and N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2) were assessed based on the urinary metabolic indices of caffeine and dextromethorphan, and the urinary excretion ratio of 6ß-hydroxycortisol to cortisol. There were no statistically significant differences in the activities of the examined enzymes before or after the 7-d administration of YKS. Although further studies assessing the influence of YKS on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the substrates of the drug-metabolizing enzymes are needed to verify the present results, YKS is unlikely that a pharmacokinetic interaction will occur with concomitantly administered medications that are predominantly metabolized by the CYP1A2, CYP2D6, CYP3A, XO and NAT2.

Effects of the Chinese herbal formula "Zuojin Pill" on the pharmacokinetics of dextromethorphan in healthy Chinese volunteers with CYP2D6*10 genotype.

OBJECTIVE: Zuojin Pill has been shown to inhibit the cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 isoenzyme in vitro. In Chinese individuals, CYP 2D6*10 is the most common allele with reduced enzyme activity. In this study, we investigated the pharmacokinetic interaction between Zuojin Pill and the sensitive CYP2D6 probe dextromethorphan in healthy Chinese volunteers with CYP2D6*10 genotype. METHODS: A pharmacokinetics interaction study was carried out in three groups with CYP2D6*1/*1 (n = 6), CYP2D6*1/*10 (n = 6), and CYP2D6*10/*10 (n = 6) genotypes. Each participant received a single oral dose of dextromethorphan (15 mg) followed by Zuojin Pill (3 g twice daily) for 7 days, and received 3 g Zuojin Pill with 15 mg dextromethorphan in the last day. Blood samples (0-24 h) and urine samples (0-12 h) were collected at baseline and after the administration of Zuojin Pill, and the samples' concentration of dextromethorphan and its main metabolite dextrorphan was determined. RESULTS: Compared to baseline values, co-administration of Zuojin Pill (3 g twice daily) for 7 days increased the AUC0-24 of dextromethorphan [mean (90 % CI)] by 3.00-fold (2.49∼3.61) and 1.71-fold (1.42∼2.06), and decreased oral clearance(CL/F) by 0.27-fold (0.2-0.40) and 0.57-fold (0.48-0.67) in the participants with CYP2D6*1/*1 and CYP2D6*1/*10 genotypes, respectively. In contrast, no significant change was observed in these pharmacokinetic parameters of the participants with CYP2D6*10/*10 genotype. CONCLUSION: These data demonstrated that administration of Zuojin Pill inhibited moderately CYP2D6-mediated metabolism of dextromethorphan in healthy volunteers. The inhibitory influence of CYP2D6 was greater in CYP2D6*1/*1 and CYP2D6*1/*10 groups than CYP2D6 *10/*10 group.

Alternative methods for CYP2D6 phenotyping: comparison of dextromethorphan metabolic ratios from AUC, single point plasma, and urine.

PURPOSE: CYP2D6 is a high polymorphic enzyme. Determining its phenotype before CYP2D6 substrate treatment can avoid dose-dependent adverse events or therapeutic failures. Alternative phenotyping methods of CYP2D6 were compared to aluate the appropriate and precise time points for phenotyping after single-dose and ultiple-dose of 30-mg controlled-release (CR) dextromethorphan (DM) and to explore the antimodes for potential sampling methods. METHODS: This was an open-label, single and multiple-dose study. 21 subjects were assigned to receive a single dose of CR DM 30 mg orally, followed by a 3-day washout period prior to oral administration of CR DM 30 mg every 12 hours for 6 days. Metabolic ratios (MRs) from AUC∞ after single dosing and from AUC0-12h at steady state were taken as the gold standard. The correlations of metabolic ratios of DM to dextrorphan (MRDM/DX) values based on different phenotyping methods were assessed. Linear regression formulas were derived to calculate the antimodes for potential sample methods. RESULTS: In the single-dose part of the study statistically significant correlations were found between MRDM/DX from AUC∞ and from serial plasma points from 1 to 30 hours or from urine (all p-values < 0.001). In the multiple-dose part, statistically significant correlations were found between MRDM/DX from AUC0-12h on day 6 and MRDM/DX from serial plasma points from 0 to 36 hours after the last dosing (all p-values < 0.001). Based on reported urinary antimode and linear regression analysis, the antimodes of AUC and plasma points were derived to profile the trend of antimodes as the drug concentrations changed. CONCLUSION: MRDM/DX from plasma points had good correlations with MRDM/DX from AUC. Plasma points from 1 to 30 hours after single dose of 30-mg CR DM and any plasma point at steady state after multiple doses of CR DM could potentially be used for phenotyping of CYP2D6.

Multiplex Phenotyping for Systems Medicine: A One-Point Optimized Practical Sampling Strategy for Simultaneous Estimation of CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP2D6 Activities Using a Cocktail Approach.

Phenotyping of the CYP450 enzyme activities contributes to personalized medicine, but the past phenotyping approaches have followed a piecemeal strategy measuring single enzyme activities in vivo. A barrier to phenotyping of populations in rural and remote areas is the limited time and resources for sample collection. The CEIBA cocktail approach allows metabolic capacity estimation of multiple CYP450 enzymes in a single sample analysis, but the attendant sample collection schemes for applications in diverse global settings are yet to be optimized. The present study aimed to select an optimal matrix to simultaneously analyze CYP450 enzyme activities so as to simplify the sampling schemes in the phenotyping protocol to enhance its throughput and feasibility in native populations or in remote and underserviced geographies and social contexts. We evaluated 13 Ecuadorian healthy volunteers for CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP2D6 genotypes and their metabolic phenotypes, including CYP3A4, in plasma and urine after administering one reduced dose of caffeine, losartan, omeprazole, and dextromethorphan. Pharmacokinetic analyses were performed, and the correlation between AUC parent/AUC metabolite and the ratio between concentrations of probe drugs and their corresponding metabolites at timepoints ranging from 0 to 12 hours post-dose were analyzed. A single sampling timepoint, 4 hours post-dose in plasma, was identified as optimal to reflect the metabolic activity of the attendant CYP450 enzymes. This study optimizes the CEIBA multiplexed phenotyping approach and offers new ways forward for integrated drug metabolism analyses, in the pursuit of global personalized medicine applications in resource-limited regions, be they in developed or developing countries.

Effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. on Metabolic Activity of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4.

BACKGROUND: The present study investigated the effect of fenugreek seeds powder and its alcoholic extract on metabolic activity of drug-metabolizing enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Dextromethorphan (DEX) was used as a probe for measuring metabolic activity, based on its CYP2D6- and CYP3A4-mediated metabolism to dextrorphan (DOR) and 3-methoxymorphinan (3-MM), respectively. For the in vitro investigations, DEX (25µM) was incubated with human liver microsomes and NADPH and tested with and without the fenugreek extract. For the in vivo study, phase I, 6 subjects received a single dose of DEX (30 mg); in phase II, after washout period, the fenugreek seeds powder was administered for 1 week and DEX was administered with its last dose. RESULTS: In vitro, fenugreek extract inhibits CYP2D6-mediated O-demethylation of DEX. Higher concentrations (50 and 100µg/ml) of extract inhibit CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 activity. In vivo results indicated that fenugreek does not significantly inhibit CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 metabolic activity. There was no significant change in the levels of DEX metabolites (DOR 12% and 3-MM 9%) excreted in urine and their urine metabolic ratios (P values: 0.257 and 0.333 DEX/DOR and DEX/3-MM, respectively). CONCLUSION: In vitro and in vivo observations suggested that fenugreek may not have substantial effect on the metabolic activity of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4.

Potential transducers based man-tailored biomimetic sensors for selective recognition of dextromethorphan as an antitussive drug.

A biomimetic potentiometric sensor for specific recognition of dextromethorphan (DXM), a drug classified according to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) as a "drug of concern", is designed and characterized. A molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP), with special molecular recognition properties of DXM, was prepared by thermal polymerization in which DXM acted as template molecule, methacrylic acid (MAA) and acrylonitrile (AN) acted as functional monomers in the presence of ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) as crosslinker. The sensors showed a high selectivity and a sensitive response to the template in aqueous system. Electrochemical evaluation of these sensors revealed near-Nernstian response with slopes of 49.6±0.5 and 53.4±0.5 mV decade(-1) with a detection limit of 1.9×10(-6), and 1.0×10(-6) mol L(-1) DXM with MIP/MAA and MIP/AN membrane based sensors, respectively. Significantly improved accuracy, precision, response time, stability, selectivity and sensitivity were offered by these simple and cost-effective potentiometric sensors compared with other standard techniques. The method has the requisite accuracy, sensitivity and precision to assay DXM in pharmaceutical products.

Detection of an endogenous urinary biomarker associated with CYP2D6 activity using global metabolomics.

AIM: We sought to discover endogenous urinary biomarkers of human CYP2D6 activity. PATIENTS & METHODS: Healthy pediatric subjects (n = 189) were phenotyped using dextromethorphan and randomized for candidate biomarker selection and validation. Global urinary metabolomics was performed using liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Candidate biomarkers were tested in adults receiving fluoxetine, a CYP2D6 inhibitor. RESULTS: A biomarker, M1 (m/z 444.3102) was correlated with CYP2D6 activity in both the pediatric training and validation sets. Poor metabolizers had undetectable levels of M1, whereas it was present in subjects with other phenotypes. In adult subjects, a 9.56-fold decrease in M1 abundance was observed during CYP2D6 inhibition. CONCLUSION: Identification and validation of M1 may provide a noninvasive means of CYP2D6 phenotyping.

The effect of grape seed extract on the pharmacokinetics of dextromethorphan in healthy volunteers.

PURPOSE: Grape seed extract (GSE) has been shown to inhibit the cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 isoenzyme in vitro. To determine the clinical effect of GSE on CYP2D6, the pharmacokinetic interaction between GSE and the sensitive CYP2D6 probe dextromethorphan in healthy adult volunteers was examined. METHODS: In this open label, randomized, cross-over study, 30 subjects were assigned to cohort A or B. Both cohorts ingested 30 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide on day 1 and day 10. Cohort A received 100 mg GSE capsules three times daily on days 8, 9 and 10, while cohort B started with GSE on day -1 until day 1. After urine collection (0-8 h) on day 1 and day 10, the urinary dextromethorphan to dextrorphan metabolic ratio was determined. RESULTS: Among 28 evaluable subjects, an increase of the urinary metabolic ratio was observed in 16 subjects (57 %). The mean metabolic ratio (± standard deviation) before and after GSE supplementation was 0.41 (± 0.56) and 0.48 (± 0.59), respectively. This result was neither statistically (P = 0.342) nor clinically [geometric mean ratio 1.10, 90 % CI (0.93-1.30)] significant. Further, the majority (73 %) of the included subjects did not experience any adverse events after intake of dextromethorphan or GSE. CONCLUSIONS: Supplementation of GSE did not significantly affect the urinary dextromethorphan to dextrorphan metabolic ratio in healthy volunteers. The results of this clinical study indicate that GSE appears to be safe to combine with drugs extensively metabolized by CYP2D6, such as dextromethorphan and tamoxifen.

How often do false-positive phencyclidine urine screens occur with use of common medications?

BACKGROUND: Previous reports describe false-positive urine immunoassay screens for phencyclidine (PCP) associated with use of tramadol, dextromethorphan, or diphenhydramine. The likelihood of these false positives is unknown. OBJECTIVE: We sought to find the relative frequency of false-positive PCP screens associated with these medications and to look for any other medications with similar associations. METHODS: In an IRB-approved study, we retrospectively reviewed charts of all ED encounters with positive urine screens for PCP in our hospital from 2007 through 2011, inclusive. Urine samples were tested for drugs of abuse using the Siemens Syva EMIT II Immunoassay. Our laboratory routinely confirmed all positive screens using GC-MS with results classified as either "confirmed" (true positive) or "failed to confirm" (false positive). We recorded all medications mentioned in the chart as current medications or medications given before the urine sample. We used Fisher's exact test to compare frequencies of tramadol, dextromethorphan, diphenhydramine, and other medications between the two groups. RESULTS: Tramadol, dextromethorphan, alprazolam, clonazepam, and carvedilol were significantly more frequent among the false-positive group, but the latter three were also associated with polysubstance abuse. Diphenhydramine was more frequently recorded among the false-positive group, but this was not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: False-positive urine screens for PCP are associated with tramadol and dextromethorphan and may also occur with diphenhydramine. Positive PCP screens associated with alprazolam, clonazepam, and carvedilol were also associated with polysubstance abuse.

Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic alterations in the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass recipients.

OBJECTIVE: We conducted a pharmacokinetic (PK) study and a pharmacodynamic (PD) study to assess whether Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery is associated with significant changes to PK and PD of oral medications. BACKGROUND: The effect of RYGB on oral drug disposition is not well understood. METHODS: An oral cocktail of probe drugs for major drug-metabolizing enzymes (caffeine, tolbutamide, omeprazole, dextromethorphan, and oral and intravenous midazolam) was administered to 18 RYGB recipients and 18 controls. Timed blood and urine samples were obtained for PK analyses. Forty mg of oral furosemide was administered to 13 RYGB recipients and 14 controls, and urine and blood samples were collected for assessing furosemidePK, and urine volume and urine sodium excretion for PD analyses. RESULTS: Compared with controls, the RYGB group had significantly lower time to maximum plasma concentration (tmax) for caffeine (0.58 ± 0.5 vs 2.1 ± 2.2 hours, P < 0.0001), tolbutamide (1.4 ± 1.8 vs 2.1 ± 2.2 hours, P = 0.0001), omeprazole (1.1 ± 1.1 vs 4.4 ± 1.3 hours, P < 0.0001), and oral midazolam (0.5 ± 0.2 vs 0.7 ± 0.4 hours, P < 0.01). However, maximum plasma concentration, half-life, area under the curve, and oral bioavailability were not different. Compared with controls, the RYGB group had brisk natriuresis, with significantly lower tmax for urine sodium (1.3 ± 0.5 vs 3.1 ± 2.3 hours, P < 0.02) and correspondingly lower tmax for furosemide (1.8 ± 0.3 vs 4.2 ± 1.2 hours, P = 0.006). However, 6-hour urine sodium and 6-hour urine volume were not different between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: RYGB recipients have significantly shorter tmax for the studied orally administered medications, but otherwise no other significant changes in PK were reported.

A herbal-drug interaction study of keishi-bukuryo-gan, a traditional herbal preparation used for menopausal symptoms, in healthy female volunteers.

OBJECTIVES: Many patients use herbal medicines to relieve menopausal symptoms. Keishi-bukuryo-gan contains five herbal components, and has been used for treating hypermenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea and menopausal symptoms in Asian countries. In this study, we investigated the potential herb-drug interactions of keishi-bukuryo-gan in healthy female subjects. METHODS: Thirty-one healthy females (20-27 years) were studied to evaluate their baseline activity of cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A2, CYP2D6, CYP3A, xanthine oxidase (XO) and N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2) based on the urinary metabolic indices of an 8-h urine sample collected after a 150-mg dose of caffeine and a 30-mg dose of dextromethorphan, and also the urinary excretion ratio of 6ß-hydroxycortisol to cortisol. Thereafter, the subjects received 3.75g of keishi-bukuryo-gan twice daily for seven days, and underwent the same tests on post-dose day 7. KEY FINDINGS: The geometric mean phenotypic index for CYP1A2 significantly decreased by 16% on day 7 compared with the baseline (P=0.026). Keishi-bukuryo-gan did not alter the indices for CYP2D6, CYP3A, XO and NAT2. CONCLUSIONS: Keishi-bukuryo-gan may inhibit the activity of CYP1A2, which is predominantly involved in oestrogen metabolism. However, TJ-25 is unlikely to participate in herb-drug interactions involving medications predominantly metabolized by CYP2D6, CYP3A, XO and NAT2. K

Liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry with metabolic profiling of human urine as a tool for environmental analysis of dextromethorphan.

We use the combination of liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/Q-TOF-MS) and urine metabolic profiling to find and identify the metabolites of dextromethorphan, a common over-the-counter (OTC) cough suppressant. Next, we use the combination of ion masses, their MS/MS fragmentation, and retention times to determine dextromethorphan and its metabolites in surface water impacted by wastewater. Prior to this study, neither dextromethorphan nor its metabolites have been reported in surface water; in spite of its common use in over 100 various OTC medications. We found that the concentration of the dextrorphan metabolite in surface water greatly exceeded the parent compound by factors of 5-10 times, which reflects the urine profile, where parent compound is approximately <2% of the total excreted drug based on ion intensities. Urine profiling also indicated that glucuronide metabolites are major phase 2 products (92% of the total) in urine and then are completely hydrolyzed in wastewater to dextrorphan and N-demethyldextrorphan, which are phase 1 metabolites-a "kind of reversal" of human metabolism.

Repeated administration of berberine inhibits cytochromes P450 in humans.

PURPOSE: Berberine is a plant alkaloid that is widely used to treat gastrointestinal infections, diabetes, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia. Many studies have reported interactions between berberine-containing products and cytochromes P450 (CYPs), but little is known about whether berberine alters CYP activities in humans, especially after repeated doses. METHODS: A two-phase randomized-crossover clinical study in healthy male subjects was performed. After 2 weeks of berberine (300 mg, t.i.d., p.o.) administration, midazolam, omeprazole, dextromethorphan, losartan, and caffeine were used to evaluate enzyme activities of CYP3A4, 2C19, 2D6, 2C9, and CYP1A2, respectively. RESULTS: A decrease in CYP2D6 activity was observed as the 0-8 h urinary dextromethorphan/dextrorphan increased ninefold (P < 0.01). In addition, losartan/E-3174 ratio doubled (P < 0.01) after BBR administration, indicating a decrease in CYP2C9 activity. CYP3A4 activity was also inhibited, as the C(max), AUC(0-∞), and AUC(0-12) of midazolam were increased 38% (P < 0.05), 40% (P < 0.01), and 37% (P < 0.05) after BBR treatment, respectively. Compared with the placebo period, the T(max) and T(1/2) of midazolam during BBR administration were prolonged from 3.03 ± 0.27 to 3.66 ± 0.37 h and 0.66 ± 0.08 to 0.99 ± 0.09 h, respectively; the oral clearance of midazolam was decreased 27% (P < 0.05); and the phenotypic indices of 1 h midazolam/1'-hydroxymidazolam increased 59% (P < 0.01). There were no statistically significant differences in the pharmacokinetic parameters of the other probe drugs between placebo and the BBR-treated group. CONCLUSIONS: Repeated administration of berberine (300 mg, t.i.d., p.o.) decreased CYP2D6, 2C9, and CYP3A4 activities. Drug-drug interactions should be considered when berberine is administered.