Divorce and physical health: A three-level meta-analysis.

Divorce is often considered a major and stressful life transition. Given that divorcees are overrepresented in primary care and there is a association between individuals' physical health and psychological adjustment, potential post-divorce health problems are of concern. Yet, empirical evidence is lacking on the magnitude of the overall physical health risk after divorce, on possible differences across specific pathologies, and on factors that may increase or reduce this risk. The current meta-analysis addresses these issues. We identified 94 studies including u = 248 relevant effect sizes, based on N = 1,384,507 participants. Generally, compared to married individuals, divorcees showed significantly worse self-reported health (OR = 1.20, [1.08-1.33]), experienced more physical symptoms (OR = 1.34, [1.17-1.53]), and had a higher risk for diabetes (OR = 1.18 [1.05-1.33]), joint pathologies (OR = 1.24, [1.14-1.34]), cardiovascular (OR = 1.24, [1.09-1.41]) and cerebrovascular conditions (OR = 1.31, [1.14-1.51]), and sexually transmitted diseases (OR = 2.48, [1.32-4.64]). However, they had no increased risk of hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, cancer and cancer development, disabilities or limitations, or cognitive pathologies. Nor did divorcees significantly differ from married individuals when aggregating all pathologies to measure overall physical health problems (OR = 1.14, [0.85 to 1.54]). Yet, moderation analyses revealed that being female, unemployed, childless, or having a lower education constitutes a higher risk for overall physical health problems after divorce. The same applied to having a heavy alcohol consumption, lack of exercise, and being overweight. Our meta-analysis shows that divorcees are at heightened risk of certain pathologies, with sexually transmitted diseases as a particular post-divorce hazard. These findings call for more awareness among counsellors and physicians on divorcees' health conditions and the characteristics that make divorcees even more vulnerable to health problems.

Testing the Impacts of Rational-Emotive Couple Intervention in a Sample of Parents Seeking Divorce.

Marital burnout has not been extensively studied despite its huge consequences on family wellbeing and quality of family life. This study, using randomised-controlled trial, tested the impact of rational-emotive couple intervention on marital burnout in a sample of parents seeking a divorce. A total of 67 parents who participated during the rational-emotive couple intervention (RECI) were assessed using the marital burnout scale, Beck depression inventory, and parent rational and irrational beliefs scale. Crosstabulation, multivariate test analysis, and bivariate analysis were used to analyse the data collected. Results show a significant reduction of marital burnout in RECI group participants, and significant improvement was maintained at the follow-up stage. The result of the group and gender interaction effect shows no significant interaction effect of group and gender on participants' marital burnout at Time two and Time 3, respectively. The results indicate that a decrease in parents' irrational beliefs accounts for marital burnout among couples seeking a divorce. Marital burnout is positively associated with depression among couples seeking a divorce. This study concludes that the RECI is an effective intervention that reduces marital burnout which is a direct consequence of irrational beliefs which later metamorphose into depressive symptoms.

Mothers' parental divorce experience in childhood and their children's mental health: Mediating role of maternal education.

BACKGROUND: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) of mothers have been shown to be associated with children's mental health and behavior problems. It is important to identify effective intervention points to prevent negative consequences among children. This study aimed to investigate whether mothers' education is protective against children's depressive symptoms in families with mothers who experienced parental divorce in childhood. METHODS: Data from a cross-sectional study of 5th and 8th grade children and their caregivers in a prefecture in Japan were used. Final analytic sample consisted of 9666 child-caregiver pairs. Mediation analyses using inverse odds weighting were performed where the exposure was maternal experience of parental divorce in childhood, outcome was child depressive symptoms, and potential mediators were maternal education beyond high school, maternal mental health, and household income. RESULTS: Maternal experience of parental divorce was associated with an elevated risk of child depressive symptoms (risk ratio: 1.22, 95 % confidence interval (CI): 1.07-1.39). Mediation analyses indicated that the combination of maternal education, maternal depression and household income mediated about half of the total effect. In the model where maternal education was the sole mediator, maternal education mediated nearly half of the total effect (risk ratio: 1.10, 95 % CI: 1.01-1.20). LIMITATIONS: Results should be cautiously interpreted given observational and cross-sectional nature of the data. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal education beyond high school may be protective against negative mental health consequences among children due to mothers' experience of parental divorce. Further studies are needed regarding potential mechanisms and the roles of other potential mediators.

Carry that weight: Parental separation and children's Body Mass Index from childhood to young adulthood.

Research has shown that parental separation is associated with worse physical health and unhealthy weight gains during childhood. However, limited empirical attention has been given to the evolution of child health before, upon and following parental union dissolution. Drawing on data from the Child Development Supplement and the Transition to Adulthood Supplement of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (1997-2017), I investigate whether parental union dissolution during childhood is associated with children's Body Mass Index (BMI) and the risk of developing overweight/obesity in the short and long run (n = 2675 children aged 0-12 in 1997). The results from a combination of propensity score matching and fixed-effects linear regression models show that union dissolution is associated with increases in child BMI and an increased risk of developing overweight/obesity. These changes in children's weight status persist for at least ten years after parental separation. Unhealthy weight gains following parental separation are more pronounced among female children and those with lower-educated and non-White parents. The findings suggest that in the United States parental union dissolution contributes to increase socioeconomic inequalities in child health. Therefore, children with separated parents and lower socioeconomic backgrounds have greater risks of developing overweight/obesity and other obesity-related morbidities over their life courses.

Arab mothers' viewpoints: Why their children are removed from home.

BACKGROUND: Many studies have explored the impact of child removal on both children and professionals, but there is limited research on the experiences of mothers whose children social services had removed from their homes, particularly within Arab society. OBJECTIVE: This study focused on Arab mothers from East Jerusalem-an ethnic minority in Israel's society, that faces unique challenges-whose children removed from home. The study examines, from the mothers' perspectives (1) reasons for the removal, and (2) relationships with welfare services. METHODS: 15 Arab mothers from East Jerusalem, aged 25 to 49 who had at least one child removed through a court order participated in the study. Nine of the mothers were divorced, separated, or widowed. RESULTS: The mothers described several reasons for their children's removal, including domestic violence and lack of support from their own families after leaving abusive husbands, poverty leading to what social services interpreted as neglect, the child's challenging behavior, and false accusations. The second theme reveals a lack of cooperation between social workers and the mothers, and social workers' negative perceptions of the mothers hindering reunification. CONCLUSIONS: The study sheds light, for the first time as far as we know, on the perspectives of Arab mothers concerning their children's removal. Early support could avert removal, and social workers should make greater efforts to promote child reunification. It is paramount that professionals build trust with these mothers, through culturally sensitive and empowering engagement.

Parenting, Coparenting, and Adolescents' Sense of Autonomy and Belonging After Divorce.

Although there is ample evidence on the importance of experiencing autonomy and belonging for positive adolescent development and the supporting role of parents in this regard, most knowledge stems from intact families. As many youth grow up with divorced parents, this study tested longitudinal links between warm and autonomy supportive parenting and coparental cooperation and conflict on the one hand, and adolescents' post-divorce autonomy and belonging on the other. Data consisted of three-wave self-report data of 191 Dutch adolescents (Mage = 14.36, 61.3% girls) and 227 divorced parents (Mage = 46.08, 74% mothers). Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models showed stable between-family differences, with autonomy relating positively to coparenting and parental autonomy support, and belongingness associating positively solely with parenting. No significant effects were found within families, meaning that changes in (co)parental behaviors did not predict adolescents' experiences of autonomy and belonging or vice versa.

Pathways to retirement in West Germany: Does divorce matter?

The aim of this paper is to explore how divorce is linked to pathways to retirement in West Germany and to understand whether and how patterns are gendered. Using German pension insurance data, I employ sequence and cluster analysis to map and group pathways to retirement of women and men who retired in 2018. Pathways to retirement are defined based on monthly pension insurance histories from age 50 to 65. I find nine distinct pathways to retirement, ranging from unemployment to stable low to high income pathways and to an early retirement pathway through the reduced-earnings-capacity pension, the latter representing 9.3% of the sample. Based on multinomial logistic regression models, I analyse how marital status, distinguishing between divorced and (re)married, was related to different pathways to retirement. The results show that divorced people were more likely than married people to retire through indirect and unstable pathways to retirement characterised by early exit from the labour market and receipt of reduced-earnings-capacity pensions and/or unemployment benefits. Whereas the relationship between divorce and pathways to retirement seemed to be overall unfavourable for men, the results for women are more ambiguous. Divorced women were also more likely to retire through a stable high-income pathway than married women. Nevertheless, the results suggest that divorce is associated with an early retirement pathway through the reduced-earnings-capacity pension for both women and men.

Family structure transitions and educational outcomes: Explaining heterogeneity by parental education in Germany.

Recent research has documented that the effect of parental separation on children's educational outcomes depends on socioeconomic background. Yet, parental separation could lead to a stable single-parent family or to a further transition to a stepfamily. Little is known about how the effect of family structure transitions on educational outcomes depends on the education of parents and stepparents, and there has been limited empirical research into the mechanisms that explain heterogeneity in the effects of family transitions. Using longitudinal data from the German Socio-Economic Panel and models with entropy balancing and sibling fixed effects, I explore the heterogeneous effects of family transitions during early and middle childhood on academic secondary school track attendance, grades and aspirations. I find that family transitions only reduce the academic school track attendance among children of less educated parents living in stepfamilies or with a single mother after parental separation, and among children of highly educated fathers living in single-mother families. The mechanisms that partly explain these effects relate to reduced income and exposure to poverty after parental separation. The findings underscore the importance of considering the stepparent's educational level, indicating that the adverse consequences of parental separation on educational outcomes are mitigated when a highly educated stepfather becomes part of the family. Overall, these findings align more closely with the resource perspective than the family stability perspective.

"One man, one life, one marriage": A qualitative analysis of Hmong women's divorce experiences.

Despite the rising divorce rates in some immigrant communities in the US, there has been scant scholarly attention on how immigrants experience divorce, particularly on the role of culture in the divorce process. The primary goal of the present study was to explore the diverse divorce experiences of Hmong immigrants in the United States. As a patrilineal and patriarchal community, divorce is generally frowned upon, with Hmong women often experiencing shame and stigma. A narrative design with nine Hmong women was used to capture their intricate stories that highlight such experiences. Using a thematic analysis, our findings highlighted the complexity and cultural nuances the women in our sample encountered from initiating divorce to the divorce itself: (1) No wants a divorce, (2) Divorce is the "last straw", (3) Varying divorce pathways, and (4) Navigating systems as a Hmong woman. For those who have increased knowledge of both the US American court system and divorce laws along with the traditional Hmong mediations, they may be more equipped in navigating systems. Yet as Hmong divorce practices are performed by Hmong men, Hmong women may struggle with finding their voice or support needed to advocate for their divorce. In such cases, the US court system may be more appealing in assisting their cause (e.g., custody). Professionals working with such communities should be culturally aware and attuned to the different marriage and divorce practices to understand both cultural and legal barriers for those seeking a divorce.

Trajectories of antidepressant use before and after union dissolution and re-partnering in later life: a prospective total population register-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Grey divorce and later remarriage have become increasingly common in high-income countries, but previous evidence on their impacts on mental health is scarce. Even less is known about the effects of non-marital separation and re-partnering in later life. METHODS: Using Finnish registry data from 1996 to 2018 on 228 644 individuals aged 50-70 in 2000-2014, trajectories of antidepressant (AD) use 4 years before and 4 years after divorce, non-marital separation, bereavement and subsequent re-partnering were examined using individual fixed-effects (FE) linear probability models. RESULTS: In adjusted FE models, for both genders AD use increased during the 4 years before divorce (men: 5.00 percentage points (95% CI 4.50 to 5.50); women: 6.96 (95% CI 6.34 to 7.59)), non-marital separation (men: 3.20 (95% CI 2.72 to 3.69); women: 5.98 (95% CI 5.30 to 6.66)) and bereavement (men: 4.53 (95% CI 3.97 to 5.09); women: 5.64 (95% CI 5.25 to 6.04)), with the increase accelerating immediately before the event. AD use gradually declined after union dissolution, after which it stabilised on a persistently higher level compared with pre-dissolution. Re-partnering was only associated with a small and transitory reduction in AD use (0.1-1.5 percentage points). The increases in AD use associated with union dissolution were larger in women than in men, whereas the small reductions in AD use associated with re-partnering were particularly short-lived among women. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that union dissolution in later life is associated with large and persistent increases in AD use, whereas the reductions associated with re-partnering are limited both in magnitude and duration.

The role of parental divorce in the later vulnerability to perinatal depression and early parenting stress.

OBJECTIVE: This study will examine the role of childhood experience of parental divorce on later perinatal depression and parenting stress. METHODS: 546 women were recruited at less than 20 weeks pregnancy into an ongoing pregnancy cohort study and followed up in pregnancy and the postpartum. Depression at recruitment was measured using the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale repeated in pregnancy and the postpartum. Parenting stress was measured at 12 months postpartum using Parenting Stress Index. RESULTS: This study found 33% of women had experienced parental divorce. While we did not find a statistically significant relationship between the experience of parental divorce and perinatal depression, there was a higher rate of perinatal depression when parental divorce occured at a younger age. There was no association with parental divorce and parenting stress. Childhood divorce was significantly associated with other adverse childhood experiences. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings did not support an impact of parental divorce on either maternal perinatal depression or on parenting stress, suggesting the experience of parental divorce for children may not inevitably impact their later experiences as parents. Further research on the association with age of parental divorce and later perinatal mental health is warranted.

Adolescents' belonging in post-divorce families: Examining residential and digital contact with mothers and fathers.

Using data of 166 adolescents from divorced families, this study examined longitudinal associations between the quantity and quality of adolescents' residential contact and digital contact with parents, and their sense of family belonging. Cross-lagged panel models showed concurrent associations among adolescents' residential and digital contact with each parent, yet positively for fathers and negatively for mothers. Some cross-lagged paths revealed that higher-quality interactions may contribute to positive changes in contact. Although there were effects of parent-adolescent contact on family belongingness, over time belongingness was mostly predicted by the general quality of contact. The results suggest that post-divorce relationships require frequent and meaningful time together, the effects of which, however, do hardly transfer over time in terms of adolescents' belongingness.

Parent-Child Relationships Following Gray Divorce: Stronger Ties With Mothers, Weaker Ties With Fathers.

OBJECTIVES: With rising gray divorce rates, older individuals face heightened risk of social isolation, highlighting the significance of adult children as a vital source of solidarity in the absence of a spouse. Simultaneously, gray divorce may undermine parent-adult child relationships and weaken the core of the family safety net of older persons. This study examined the consequences of gray divorce for parent-child relationships. METHODS: We used longitudinal data from the German Family Panel (Pairfam), a large-scale panel study collecting detailed information about family relationships and family structure. We focused on adult children aged 18-49 (n = 9,092) whose parents were married at first observation. During an observation period spanning up to 13 years (2008-2020), 606 individuals experienced parental divorce. Using fixed-effects models, we estimated changes in contact frequency, emotional closeness, and instrumental and emotional support provided to parents. RESULTS: Consequences of gray divorce varied strongly between mothers and fathers. Adult-child solidarity intensified for mothers but eroded for fathers. This impact was strongest for changes in contact frequency, moderate for changes in emotional closeness, and smaller for changes in support. The persistence of gender role differentiation was evident, as daughters displayed closer ties and provided greater support to their mothers following a gray divorce. DISCUSSION: Divorce alters relationships with adult children. A gray divorce tilts adult-child solidarity toward mothers and puts fathers at a higher risk of social isolation. Moreover, the observed gender dynamics underscore the continued influence of gender roles on family dynamics in the aftermath of gray divorce.

Transitory or Chronic? Gendered Loneliness Trajectories over Widowhood and Separation in Older Age.

We investigate how loneliness develops over the marital dissolution process in older age (i.e., transition at or after age 50) while paying close attention to heterogeneities by the dissolution pathway-widowhood and separation-and gender. Using data from over 8,000 Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia survey respondents, we assess the association of interest using fixed effects regressions. Findings indicate that loneliness increased in the year before widowhood or separation among both women and men. Levels spiked in the year of dissolution, particularly for widowhood but less for separation. Widowed men were substantially more affected than widowed women, and gender differences were negligible for separation. Although loneliness levels gradually declined, widowed men remained vulnerable for remarkably long periods. Such chronic loneliness might be linked to other health disadvantages. These findings highlight the importance of long-term and gender-specific approaches to social support and integration after marital dissolution.

Coparenting as a mediator between physical custody arrangements and children's mental health.

The detrimental effects of parental break-up on children's mental health are well-documented. However, research has also shown that children living in joint physical custody (JPC) arrangements often fare better than children living in sole physical custody (SPC) arrangements. Thus, the question arises: What are the differences between JPC and SPC that account for those results? Drawing on data from the Family Models in Germany (FAMOD) study conducted in 2019, structural equation models (SEM) were estimated to deduct the mediating role of coparenting support in children's mental health in 465 JPC and 652 SPC families with children aged 2-14. The findings suggest that the better mental health observed among children in JPC families than among children in SPC families was fully mediated by coparenting support. However, this held true only for internalizing and externalizing behavior, but not for prosocial behavior as no differences between JPC and SPC were found for this dimension. The findings affirm the importance of supportive coparenting for children's well-being after family dissolution in both SPC and JPC arrangements. After breaking up, parents should be supported in their parental engagement through coparenting counseling or psychoeducation classes.

What About the Children? Co-Occurrence of Child Maltreatment and Parental Separation.

The aim of this study was to investigate (a) the extent to which child maltreatment co-occurs with parental separation and (b) associations between different types of child maltreatment and various types of separation-associated interparental conflict. Professionals working with children (N = 785) reported each case of suspected child maltreatment they observed during a 3-month period and indicated whether parental divorce or separation was about to take place or had taken place. This resulted in 530 reported cases that matched the definitions of child maltreatment for which information on parental relationship status was available. Most of the maltreated children (60%) also experienced (impending) parental separation. In 69% of these cases child maltreatment was associated with parental separation. Particularly, cases of emotional neglect, and emotional abuse co-occurred with parental separation. In addition, four clusters of separation-associated interparental conflict were distinguished- No observed conflict, Non-physical conflict, Verbal and physical conflict, and Multiple conflict-which were associated with child and family characteristics and specific types of child maltreatment. The results of this study suggest that child maltreatment often co-occurs with parental separation, especially when there is a considerable amount of interparental conflict.

How is the loss of a parent in youth related to attachment and adult separation anxiety among women?

This study aimed to examine attachment and adult separation anxiety (ASA) among women who lost a parent in their youth. We hypothesized that insecure attachment and increased ASA from a romantic partner would be found among women who have lost a parent in youth, compared to women whose parents were both alive. Sixty women who lost one or both parents in their youth and 60 who had living parents participated in the study (mean age: 32.3, range: 18-62 years). Participants filled out the ASA and Short Attachment questionnaires. Women who lost a parent reported higher levels of anxious attachment and ASA from partner; the two groups did not differ, however, in terms of avoidant attachment. Additionally, similar effects on ASA and attachment were found among adult women who lost a father or a mother in their youth. In conclusion, the loss of a parent early in life may be associated with an insecure attachment style and increased ASA.

Impact of emotional divorce on the mental health of married women in Saudi Arabia.

Emotional divorce occurs when physical, psychological, mental, and spiritual separation occurs between spouses despite the fact that they live in the same house and exercise their marital duties. Emotional divorce has adverse effects on the mental health of those involved, as evidenced by the higher incidence of depression, anxiety, and loneliness among such couples. Saudi women are particularly vulnerable to emotional divorce owing to social, legal, economic, and cultural factors. Therefore, it is important to examine the relationship between emotional divorce and mental health issues (depression, anxiety, and loneliness) in married women in Saudi Arabia. Using scales that assess emotional divorce, depression, anxiety, and loneliness, data were collected from 241 married Saudi women (Mage = 34.41 years; SDage = 5.23 years). Findings revealed a statistically significant correlation between emotional divorce, depression, anxiety, and loneliness. One-way ANOVA confirmed that those with high levels of emotional divorce concurrently scores higher on the depression, anxiety, and loneliness tools, followed by those with moderate and low emotional divorce scores, respectively. Linear regression analysis indicated that depression, anxiety, and loneliness were strong predictors of emotional divorce, explaining 61% of the variance in the emotional divorce scores in this sample. These findings highlight the need to focus on the mental health outcomes of individuals experiencing emotional divorce, especially in societies where legal divorce may not be acceptable or encouraged. The need for regular evaluation and timely interventions for individuals struggling with mental health problems, and for restoring a healthy marital relationship is also highlighted.