Beyond pathogens: the intriguing genetic legacy of endogenous retroviruses in host physiology.

The notion that viruses played a crucial role in the evolution of life is not a new concept. However, more recent insights suggest that this perception might be even more expansive, highlighting the ongoing impact of viruses on host evolution. Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are considered genomic remnants of ancient viral infections acquired throughout vertebrate evolution. Their exogenous counterparts once infected the host's germline cells, eventually leading to the permanent endogenization of their respective proviruses. The success of ERV colonization is evident so that it constitutes 8% of the human genome. Emerging genomic studies indicate that endogenous retroviruses are not merely remnants of past infections but rather play a corollary role, despite not fully understood, in host genetic regulation. This review presents some evidence supporting the crucial role of endogenous retroviruses in regulating host genetics. We explore the involvement of human ERVs (HERVs) in key physiological processes, from their precise and orchestrated activities during cellular differentiation and pluripotency to their contributions to aging and cellular senescence. Additionally, we discuss the costs associated with hosting a substantial amount of preserved viral genetic material.

Analysis of Simian Endogenous Retrovirus (SERV) Full-Length Proviruses in Old World Monkey Genomes.

Simian endogenous retrovirus, SERV, is a successful germ line invader restricted to Old World monkey (OWM) species. (1) Background: The availability of high-quality primate genomes warrants a study of the characteristics, evolution, and distribution of SERV proviruses. (2) Methods: Cercopithecinae OWM genomes from public databases were queried for the presence of full-length SERV proviruses. A dataset of 81 Cer-SERV genomes was generated and analyzed. (3) Results: Full-length Cer-SERV proviruses were mainly found in terrestrial OWM, and less so in arboreal, forest- dwelling monkeys. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the existence of two genotypes, Cer-SERV-1 and Cer-SERV-2, with Cer-SERV-1 showing evidence of recent germ-line expansions. Long Terminal Repeat (LTR) variation indicated that most proviruses were of a similar age and were estimated to be between <0.3 and 10 million years old. Integrations shared between species were relatively rare. Sequence analysis further showed extensive CpG methylation-associated mutations, variable Primer Binding Site (PBS) use with Cer-SERV-1 using PBSlys3 and Cer-SERV-2 using PBSlys1,2, and the recent gain of LTR motifs for transcription factors active during embryogenesis in Cer-SERV-1. (4) Conclusions: sequence analysis of 81 SERV proviruses from Cercopithecinae OWM genomes provides evidence for the adaptation of this retrovirus to germ line reproduction.

Human reproduction is regulated by retrotransposons derived from ancient Hominidae-specific viral infections.

Germ cells are essential to pass DNA from one generation to the next. In human reproduction, germ cell development begins with the specification of primordial germ cells (PGCs) and a failure to specify PGCs leads to human infertility. Recent studies have revealed that the transcription factor network required for PGC specification has diverged in mammals, and this has a significant impact on our understanding of human reproduction. Here, we reveal that the Hominidae-specific Transposable Elements (TEs) LTR5Hs, may serve as TEENhancers (TE Embedded eNhancers) to facilitate PGC specification. LTR5Hs TEENhancers become transcriptionally active during PGC specification both in vivo and in vitro with epigenetic reprogramming leading to increased chromatin accessibility, localized DNA demethylation, enrichment of H3K27ac, and occupation of key hPGC transcription factors. Inactivation of LTR5Hs TEENhancers with KRAB mediated CRISPRi has a significant impact on germ cell specification. In summary, our data reveals the essential role of Hominidae-specific LTR5Hs TEENhancers in human germ cell development.

Genome-Wide Characterization of Zebrafish Endogenous Retroviruses Reveals Unexpected Diversity in Genetic Organizations and Functional Potentials.

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) occupy a substantial fraction of mammalian genomes. However, whether ERVs extensively exist in ancient vertebrates remains unexplored. Here, we performed a genome-wide characterization of ERVs in a zebrafish (Danio rerio) model. Approximately 3,315 ERV-like elements (DrERVs) were identified as Gypsy, Copia, Bel, and class I-III groups. DrERVs accounted for approximately 2.3% of zebrafish genome and were distributed in all 25 chromosomes, with a remarkable bias on chromosome 4. Gypsy and class I are the two most abundant groups with earlier insertion times. The vast majority of the DrERVs have varied structural defects. A total of 509 gag and 71 env genes with coding potentials were detected. The env-coding elements were well-characterized and classified into four subgroups. A ERV-E4.8.43-DanRer element shows high similarity with HERV9NC-int in humans and analogous sequences were detected in species spanning from fish to mammals. RNA-seq data showed that hundreds of DrERVs were expressed in embryos and tissues under physiological conditions, and most of them exhibited stage and tissue specificity. Additionally, 421 DrERVs showed strong responsiveness to virus infection. A unique group of DrERVs with immune-relevant genes, such as fga, ddx41, ftr35, igl1c3, and tbk1, instead of intrinsic viral genes were identified. These DrERVs are regulated by transcriptional factors binding at the long terminal repeats. This study provided a survey of the composition, phylogeny, and potential functions of ERVs in a fish model, which benefits the understanding of the evolutionary history of ERVs from fish to mammals. IMPORTANCE Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are relics of past infection that constitute up to 8% of the human genome. Understanding the genetic evolution of the ERV family and the interplay of ERVs and encoded RNAs and proteins with host function has become a new frontier in biology. Fish, as the most primitive vertebrate host for retroviruses, is an indispensable integral part for such investigations. In the present study, we report the genome-wide characterization of ERVs in zebrafish, an attractive model organism of ancient vertebrates from multiple perspectives, including composition, genomic organization, chromosome distribution, classification, phylogeny, insertion time, characterization of gag and env genes, and expression profiles in embryos and tissues. The result helps uncover the evolutionarily conserved and fish-specific ERVs, as well as the immune-relevant ERVs in response to virus infection. This study demonstrates the previously unrecognized abundance, diversification, and extensive activity of ERVs at the early stage of ERV evolution.

Anti-Human Herpesvirus 6 A/B Antibodies Titers Correlate With Multiple Sclerosis-Associated Retrovirus Envelope Expression.

Human endogenous retrovirus W family envelope proteins (pHERV-W ENV/syncytin-1) have been repeatedly associated with multiple sclerosis (MS). Here, we have focused on the study of pHERV-W ENV/syncytin-1 expression levels in MS patients (relapsing and progressive forms) and in healthy donors (HD) and on exploring their possible relationship with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and human herpesvirus-6A/B (HHV-6A/B). We included blood samples from 101 MS patients and 37 HD to analyze antiviral antibody titers by ELISA and pHERV-W ENV/syncytin-1 expression levels by flow cytometry as well as by qPCR. Patients with relapsing MS forms showed significantly higher pHERV-W ENV/syncytin-1 protein and gene expression levels than HD. Progressive MS patients also showed significantly higher protein and gene expression levels than both HD and relapsing MS patients. Regarding antiviral antibodies titers, anti-HHV-6A/B IgM levels were positively correlated with pHERV-W ENV/syncytin-1 protein expression levels in patients with relapsing MS, while in the progressive forms patients this correlation was found with anti-HHVA/B IgG levels. Therefore, pHERV-W ENV could be involved in MS pathogenesis, playing a role in relapsing and progressive forms. Besides, anti-HHV-6A/B antibodies positively correlated with pHERV-W ENV expression. Further studies are needed to better understand this possible relationship.

Porcine Endogenous Retroviruses and Xenotransplantation, 2021.

Porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVs) are integrated in the genome of all pigs, and some of them are able to infect human cells. Therefore, PERVs pose a risk for xenotransplantation, the transplantation of pig cells, tissues, or organ to humans in order to alleviate the shortage of human donor organs. Up to 2021, a huge body of knowledge about PERVs has been accumulated regarding their biology, including replication, recombination, origin, host range, and immunosuppressive properties. Until now, no PERV transmission has been observed in clinical trials transplanting pig islet cells into diabetic humans, in preclinical trials transplanting pig cells and organs into nonhuman primates with remarkable long survival times of the transplant, and in infection experiments with several animal species. Nevertheless, in order to prevent virus transmission to the recipient, numerous strategies have been developed, including selection of PERV-C-free animals, RNA interference, antiviral drugs, vaccination, and genome editing. Furthermore, at present there are no more experimental approaches to evaluate the full risk until we move to the clinic.

Cumulative Roles for Epstein-Barr Virus, Human Endogenous Retroviruses, and Human Herpes Virus-6 in Driving an Inflammatory Cascade Underlying MS Pathogenesis.

Roles for viral infections and aberrant immune responses in driving localized neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis (MS) are the focus of intense research. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), as a persistent and frequently reactivating virus with major immunogenic influences and a near 100% epidemiological association with MS, is considered to play a leading role in MS pathogenesis, triggering localized inflammation near or within the central nervous system (CNS). This triggering may occur directly via viral products (RNA and protein) and/or indirectly via antigenic mimicry involving B-cells, T-cells and cytokine-activated astrocytes and microglia cells damaging the myelin sheath of neurons. The genetic MS-risk factor HLA-DR2b (DRB1*1501ß, DRA1*0101α) may contribute to aberrant EBV antigen-presentation and anti-EBV reactivity but also to mimicry-induced autoimmune responses characteristic of MS. A central role is proposed for inflammatory EBER1, EBV-miRNA and LMP1 containing exosomes secreted by viable reactivating EBV+ B-cells and repetitive release of EBNA1-DNA complexes from apoptotic EBV+ B-cells, forming reactive immune complexes with EBNA1-IgG and complement. This may be accompanied by cytokine- or EBV-induced expression of human endogenous retrovirus-W/-K (HERV-W/-K) elements and possibly by activation of human herpesvirus-6A (HHV-6A) in early-stage CNS lesions, each contributing to an inflammatory cascade causing the relapsing-remitting neuro-inflammatory and/or progressive features characteristic of MS. Elimination of EBV-carrying B-cells by antibody- and EBV-specific T-cell therapy may hold the promise of reducing EBV activity in the CNS, thereby limiting CNS inflammation, MS symptoms and possibly reversing disease. Other approaches targeting HHV-6 and HERV-W and limiting inflammatory kinase-signaling to treat MS are also being tested with promising results. This article presents an overview of the evidence that EBV, HHV-6, and HERV-W may have a pathogenic role in initiating and promoting MS and possible approaches to mitigate development of the disease.

Patterns of Coevolutionary Adaptations across Time and Space in Mouse Gammaretroviruses and Three Restrictive Host Factors.

The classical laboratory mouse strains are genetic mosaics of three Mus musculus subspecies that occupy distinct regions of Eurasia. These strains and subspecies carry infectious and endogenous mouse leukemia viruses (MLVs) that can be pathogenic and mutagenic. MLVs evolved in concert with restrictive host factors with some under positive selection, including the XPR1 receptor for xenotropic/polytropic MLVs (X/P-MLVs) and the post-entry restriction factor Fv1. Since positive selection marks host-pathogen genetic conflicts, we examined MLVs for counter-adaptations at sites that interact with XPR1, Fv1, and the CAT1 receptor for ecotropic MLVs (E-MLVs). Results describe different co-adaptive evolutionary paths within the ranges occupied by these virus-infected subspecies. The interface of CAT1, and the otherwise variable E-MLV envelopes, is highly conserved; antiviral protection is afforded by the Fv4 restriction factor. XPR1 and X/P-MLVs variants show coordinate geographic distributions, with receptor critical sites in envelope, under positive selection but with little variation in envelope and XPR1 in mice carrying P-ERVs. The major Fv1 target in the viral capsid is under positive selection, and the distribution of Fv1 alleles is subspecies-correlated. These data document adaptive, spatial and temporal, co-evolutionary trajectories at the critical interfaces of MLVs and the host factors that restrict their replication.

The avian W chromosome is a refugium for endogenous retroviruses with likely effects on female-biased mutational load and genetic incompatibilities.

It is a broadly observed pattern that the non-recombining regions of sex-limited chromosomes (Y and W) accumulate more repeats than the rest of the genome, even in species like birds with a low genome-wide repeat content. Here, we show that in birds with highly heteromorphic sex chromosomes, the W chromosome has a transposable element (TE) density of greater than 55% compared to the genome-wide density of less than 10%, and contains over half of all full-length (thus potentially active) endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) of the entire genome. Using RNA-seq and protein mass spectrometry data, we were able to detect signatures of female-specific ERV expression. We hypothesize that the avian W chromosome acts as a refugium for active ERVs, probably leading to female-biased mutational load that may influence female physiology similar to the 'toxic-Y' effect in Drosophila males. Furthermore, Haldane's rule predicts that the heterogametic sex has reduced fertility in hybrids. We propose that the excess of W-linked active ERVs over the rest of the genome may be an additional explanatory variable for Haldane's rule, with consequences for genetic incompatibilities between species through TE/repressor mismatches in hybrids. Together, our results suggest that the sequence content of female-specific W chromosomes can have effects far beyond sex determination and gene dosage. This article is part of the theme issue 'Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part II)'.

HSV-1 and Endogenous Retroviruses as Risk Factors in Demyelination.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a neurotropic alphaherpesvirus that can infect the peripheral and central nervous systems, and it has been implicated in demyelinating and neurodegenerative processes. Transposable elements (TEs) are DNA sequences that can move from one genomic location to another. TEs have been linked to several diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS), including multiple sclerosis (MS), a demyelinating disease of unknown etiology influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Exogenous viral transactivators may activate certain retrotransposons or class I TEs. In this context, several herpesviruses have been linked to MS, and one of them, HSV-1, might act as a risk factor by mediating processes such as molecular mimicry, remyelination, and activity of endogenous retroviruses (ERVs). Several herpesviruses have been involved in the regulation of human ERVs (HERVs), and HSV-1 in particular can modulate HERVs in cells involved in MS pathogenesis. This review exposes current knowledge about the relationship between HSV-1 and human ERVs, focusing on their contribution as a risk factor for MS.

Endogenous retroviruses promote homeostatic and inflammatory responses to the microbiota.

The microbiota plays a fundamental role in regulating host immunity. However, the processes involved in the initiation and regulation of immunity to the microbiota remain largely unknown. Here, we show that the skin microbiota promotes the discrete expression of defined endogenous retroviruses (ERVs). Keratinocyte-intrinsic responses to ERVs depended on cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)/stimulator of interferon genes protein (STING) signaling and promoted the induction of commensal-specific T cells. Inhibition of ERV reverse transcription significantly impacted these responses, resulting in impaired immunity to the microbiota and its associated tissue repair function. Conversely, a lipid-enriched diet primed the skin for heightened ERV- expression in response to commensal colonization, leading to increased immune responses and tissue inflammation. Together, our results support the idea that the host may have co-opted its endogenous virome as a means to communicate with the exogenous microbiota, resulting in a multi-kingdom dialog that controls both tissue homeostasis and inflammation.

Endogenous retroviruses in the origins and treatment of cancer.

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are emerging as promising therapeutic targets in cancer. As remnants of ancient retroviral infections, ERV-derived regulatory elements coordinate expression from gene networks, including those underpinning embryogenesis and immune cell function. ERV activation can promote an interferon response, a phenomenon termed viral mimicry. Although ERV expression is associated with cancer, and provisionally with autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases, ERV-mediated inflammation is being explored as a way to sensitize tumors to immunotherapy. Here we review ERV co-option in development and innate immunity, the aberrant contribution of ERVs to tumorigenesis, and the wider biomedical potential of therapies directed at ERVs.

Switching Sides: How Endogenous Retroviruses Protect Us from Viral Infections.

Long disregarded as junk DNA or genomic dark matter, endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) have turned out to represent important components of the antiviral immune response. These remnants of once-infectious retroviruses not only regulate cellular immune activation, but may even directly target invading viral pathogens. In this Gem, we summarize mechanisms by which retroviral fossils protect us from viral infections. One focus will be on recent advances in the role of ERVs as regulators of antiviral gene expression.

Baby's best Foe-riend: Endogenous retroviruses and the evolution of eutherian reproduction.

High maternal investment in pregnancy and the perinatal period are prominent features of eutherian reproduction. Viviparity increases offspring survival, favoring high maternal prenatal investment. Matrotrophy through the placenta reduces maternal investment at early pregnancy, allowing the mother to abort embryos of subpar quality, therefore reducing resources wastage. On the other hand, intimate maternal-fetal interplay enables the fetus to manipulate maternal physiology to acquire more resources. This parent-offspring conflict likely drives the evolution of eutherian placentation, which is facilitated by the endogenous retroviruses (ERVs), ancient retroviruses that invaded host genome millions of years ago. ERVs bring new genes and novel regulatory elements into host genome, contribute to maternal-fetal tolerance, placenta-specific cell type formation, trophoblast gene expression network rewiring, and the establishment of imprinting. However, retroviruses/ERVs can function as infectious pathogens that interfere with host immune and inflammation pathways and cause genomic instability. In addition, ERVs coopted for host function may contribute to pathogenesis during infections due to their susceptibility to mechanisms activated by the invading pathogens. ERVs have been implicated in multiple perinatal adverse outcomes, therefore, eutherians must have evolved control mechanisms to regulate their function. Here we propose the TRIM family as an important participant of host antiviral defense and a likely candidate that mediates the coevolution of ERVs and their eutherian host. TRIMs have been shown to interact with retroviruses during each step of the infectious cycle. Understanding TRIMs' role in ERV regulation in the placenta may provide insight to both the physiology and pathology of eutherian reproduction.

Viral Infections and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: New Players in an Old Story.

A causal link between viral infections and autoimmunity has been studied for a long time and the role of some viruses in the induction or exacerbation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in genetically predisposed patients has been proved. The strength of the association between different viral agents and SLE is variable. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), parvovirus B19 (B19V), and human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are involved in SLE pathogenesis, whereas other viruses such as Cytomegalovirus (CMV) probably play a less prominent role. However, the mechanisms of viral-host interactions and the impact of viruses on disease course have yet to be elucidated. In addition to classical mechanisms of viral-triggered autoimmunity, such as molecular mimicry and epitope spreading, there has been a growing appreciation of the role of direct activation of innate response by viral nucleic acids and epigenetic modulation of interferon-related immune response. The latter is especially important for HERVs, which may represent the molecular link between environmental triggers and critical immune genes. Virus-specific proteins modulating interaction with the host immune system have been characterized especially for Epstein-Barr virus and explain immune evasion, persistent infection and self-reactive B-cell "immortalization". Knowledge has also been expanding on key viral proteins of B19-V and CMV and their possible association with specific phenotypes such as antiphospholipid syndrome. This progress may pave the way to new therapeutic perspectives, including the use of known or new antiviral drugs, postviral immune response modulation and innate immunity inhibition. We herein describe the state-of-the-art knowledge on the role of viral infections in SLE, with a focus on their mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic targets.

TRIM28 Expression on Dendritic Cells Prevents Excessive T Cell Priming by Silencing Endogenous Retrovirus.

Acquired immune reaction is initiated by dendritic cells (DCs), which present Ags to a few naive Ag-specific T cells. Deregulation of gene expression in DCs may alter the outcome of the immune response toward immunodeficiency and/or autoimmune diseases. Expression of TRIM28, a nuclear protein that mediates gene silencing through heterochromatin, decreased in DCs from old mice, suggesting alteration of gene regulation. Mice specifically lacking TRIM28 in DCs show increased DC population in the spleen and enhanced T cell priming toward inflammatory effector T cells, leading to acceleration and exacerbation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. TRIM28-deficient DCs were found to ectopically transcribe endogenous retrovirus (ERV) elements. Combined genome-wide analysis revealed a strong colocalization among the decreased repressive histone mark H3K9me3-transcribed ERV elements and the derepressed host genes that were related to inflammation in TRIM28-deficient DCs. This suggests that TRIM28 occupancy of ERV elements critically represses expression of proximal inflammatory genes on the genome. We propose that gene silencing through repressive histone modification by TRIM28 plays a role in maintaining the integrity of precise gene regulation in DCs, which prevents aberrant T cell priming to inflammatory effector T cells.

Fasting and overfeeding affect the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes in the liver of poultry via endogenous retrovirus.

It is known that nutrition and immunity are connected, but the mechanism is not very clear. Endogenous retroviruses (ERV) account for 8 to 10% of the human and mouse genomes and play an important role in some biological processes of animals. Recent studies indicate that the activation of ERV can affect the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes, and the activities of ERV are subjected to regulation of many factors including nutritional factors. Therefore, we hypothesize that nutritional status can affect the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes via ERV. To verify this hypothesis, the nutritional status of animals was altered by fasting or overfeeding, and the expression of intact ERV (ERVK18P, ERVK25P) and immunity- or inflammation-related genes (DDX41, IFIH1, IFNG, IRF7, STAT3) in the liver was determined by quantitative PCR, followed by overexpressing ERVK25P in goose primary hepatocytes and determining the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes. The data showed that compared with the control group (no fasting), the expression of ERV and the immunity- or inflammation-related genes was increased in the liver of the fasted chickens but decreased in the liver of the fasted geese. Moreover, compared with the control group (routinely fed), the expression of ERV and the immunity- or inflammation-related genes was increased in the liver of the overfed geese. In addition, overexpression of ERVK25P in goose primary hepatocytes can induce the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes. In conclusion, these findings suggest that ERV mediate the effects of fasting and overfeeding on the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes, the mediation varied with poultry species, and ERV and the immunity- or inflammation-related genes may be involved in the development of goose fatty liver. This study provides a potential mechanism for the connection between nutrition and immunity.

Gv1, a Zinc Finger Gene Controlling Endogenous MLV Expression.

The genomes of inbred mice harbor around 50 endogenous murine leukemia virus (MLV) loci, although the specific complement varies greatly between strains. The Gv1 locus is known to control the transcription of endogenous MLVs and to be the dominant determinant of cell-surface presentation of MLV envelope, the GIX antigen. Here, we identify a single Krüppel-associated box zinc finger protein (ZFP) gene, Zfp998, as Gv1 and show it to be necessary and sufficient to determine the GIX+ phenotype. By long-read sequencing of bacterial artificial chromosome clones from 129 mice, the prototypic GIX+ strain, we reveal the source of sufficiency and deficiency as splice-acceptor variations and highlight the varying origins of the chromosomal region encompassing Gv1. Zfp998 becomes the second identified ZFP gene responsible for epigenetic suppression of endogenous MLVs in mice and further highlights the prominent role of this gene family in control of endogenous retroviruses.

The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Demyelination of the Central Nervous System.

It is being increasingly demonstrated that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are deeply involved in the physiology of the central nervous system (CNS). Processes such as synaptic activity, neuron-glia communication, myelination and immune response are modulated by EVs. Likewise, these vesicles may participate in many pathological processes, both as triggers of disease or, on the contrary, as mechanisms of repair. EVs play relevant roles in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's diseases, in viral infections of the CNS and in demyelinating pathologies such as multiple sclerosis (MS). This review describes the involvement of these membrane vesicles in major demyelinating diseases, including MS, neuromyelitis optica, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and demyelination associated to herpesviruses.