Cellular structure of dinosaur scales reveals retention of reptile-type skin during the evolutionary transition to feathers.

Fossil feathers have transformed our understanding of integumentary evolution in vertebrates. The evolution of feathers is associated with novel skin ultrastructures, but the fossil record of these changes is poor and thus the critical transition from scaled to feathered skin is poorly understood. Here we shed light on this issue using preserved skin in the non-avian feathered dinosaur Psittacosaurus. Skin in the non-feathered, scaled torso is three-dimensionally replicated in silica and preserves epidermal layers, corneocytes and melanosomes. The morphology of the preserved stratum corneum is consistent with an original composition rich in corneous beta proteins, rather than (alpha-) keratins as in the feathered skin of birds. The stratum corneum is relatively thin in the ventral torso compared to extant quadrupedal reptiles, reflecting a reduced demand for mechanical protection in an elevated bipedal stance. The distribution of the melanosomes in the fossil skin is consistent with melanin-based colouration in extant crocodilians. Collectively, the fossil evidence supports partitioning of skin development in Psittacosaurus: a reptile-type condition in non-feathered regions and an avian-like condition in feathered regions. Retention of reptile-type skin in non-feathered regions would have ensured essential skin functions during the early, experimental stages of feather evolution.

Bristles formation in adhesive pads and sensilli of the gecko Tarentola mauritanica derive from a massive accumulation of corneous material in Oberhautchen cells of the epidermis.

Among lizards, geckos possess special digital scales modified as hairy-like lamellae that allow attachment to vertical substrates for the movement using adhesive nanoscale filaments called setae. The present study shows new ultrastructural details on setae formation in the gecko Tarentula mauritanica. Setae derive from the special differentiation of an epidermal layer termed Oberhauchen and can reach 30-60 µm in length. Oberhautchen cells in the adhesive pad lamellae becomes hypertrophic and rest upon 2 layers of non-corneous and pale cells instead of beta-cells like in the other scales. Only 1-2 beta-layers are formed underneath the pale layer. Setae derive from the accumulation of numerous roundish and heterogenous beta-packets with variable electron-density in Oberhautchen cells, possibly indicating a mixed protein composition. Immunofluorescence and immunogold labeling for CBPs show that beta-packets merge at the base of the growing setae forming long corneous bundles. Pale cells formed underneath the Oberhautchen layer contain small vesicles or tubules with a likely lipid content, sparse keratin filaments and ribosomes. In mature lamellae these cells merge with Oberhautchen and beta-cells forming a thin electron-paler layer located between the Oberhautchen and the thin beta-layer, a variation of the typical sequence of epidermal layers present in other scales. The formation of a softer pale layer and of a thin beta-layer likely determines a flexible corneous support for the adhesive setae. The specific molecular mechanism that stimulates the cellular changes observed during Oberhautchen hypertrophy and the alteration of the typical epidermal stratification in the pad epidermis remains unknown.

Microscopic anatomy of the integument in the ribbon worm Micrura bella (Stimpson, 1857) (Pilidiophora, Nemertea).

The integument of ribbon worms in the order Heteronemertea is distinct from the integuments in the other taxa of nemerteans due to the presence of a special subepidermal glandular layer, the cutis. Among heteronemerteans, the ultrastructure of the cutis has been studied only in the Lineus ruber species complex. In the current study, ultrastructural (transmission electron microscopy) and histochemical studies of the epidermis and the cutis of Micrura bella from the basal Lineage A of the family Lineidae were performed. The epidermis consisted of ciliated and serous gland cells and is separated from the cutis by a layer of the subepidermal extracellular matrix; the basal lamina was not detected. The cutis comprised musculature, two types of mucous and four types of granular gland cells, and pigment cells with four types of granules. In the cutis of juvenile worms, type II granular gland cells and type II mucous cells were not observed. The integument of the caudal cirrus consisted of ciliated and serous gland cells and two intraepidermal lateral nerve cords; the cutis was absent. The compositions of the integument glands of M. bella and the L. ruber species complex are similar, except for the presence of type IV granular gland cells with narrow rod-shaped and lamellated granules exhibiting an alternating dark and light transverse layers and type II mucous cells found only in M. bella.

Whole-Mount Preparation and Microscopic Analysis of Epidermis.

The epidermis is a stratified epithelium. Compared to that for monolayered epithelia, understanding of the cell biology of stratified epithelia lags far behind. The major reason for this is the limitation of methods to reproduce the epidermis in vitro using cultured keratinocytes: for example, cultured keratinocyte cell sheets lack Langerhans cells, melanocytes, nerves, sweat ducts, and hair follicles. One current way to overcome this limitation is to observe the epidermis in vivo via whole-mount staining and three-dimensional imaging. Here, we describe how to prepare epidermal sheets from skin and how to immunostain and observe them in whole mount. © 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Preparation of mouse epidermal sheets by the ammonium thiocyanate method Alternate Protocol: Preparation of mouse epidermal sheets by the dispase method Basic Protocol 2: Preparation of human epidermal sheets by the dispase method Basic Protocol 3: Whole-mount immunostaining of epidermis.

Snout cutis of the domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus, Linnaeus, 1758): Using light and transmission electron microscopy.

The current study was designed to give microscopic view on the snout skin of the domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) to clear its adaptations with the function of exploring for the food and pushing the objects. This study carried out on the snout skin of apparently healthy 1 year five pigs (Sus Scrofa) and examined under the light and transmission electron microscopy. Our results clarify that the snout skin cutis composed of the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis consisted of stratum corneum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. The stratum corneum and the stratum spinosum appeared thicker than other parts. The dermis consisted of a reticular and a papillary dermis. For tightness junction between the dermis and the epidermis, the hemidesmosomes were observed, while the desmosomes were presented in abundant numbers at the level of stratum basale to ensure the adhesion between the keratinocytes. The merocrine sweat glands were observed in abundant numbers to provide the wetness of the snout to avoid its injury from friction during food exploring or pushing of the objects. We concluded that the adaptation of the snout skin with the environmental condition surrounding the studied domestic pig.

The epithelial layers of the body wall in hornerid bryozoans (Stenolaemata: Cyclostomatida).

Bryozoans are small colonial coelomates. They can be conceptualised as "origami-like" animals, composed of three complexly folded epithelial layers: epidermis of the zooidal/colonial body wall, gut epithelium and coelothelium. We investigated the general microanatomy and ultrastructure of the hornerid (Cyclostomatatida) body wall and polypide in four taxa, including three species of Hornera and one species belonging to an undescribed genus. We describe epithelia and their associated structures (e.g., ECM, cuticle) across all portions of the hornerid body wall, including the terminal membrane, vestibular wall, atrial sphincter, membranous sac and polypide-skeletal attachments. The classic coelomate body wall composition (epidermis-ECM-coelothelium) is only present in an unmodified form in the tentacle sheath. Deeper within a zooid it is retained exclusively in the attachment zones of the membranous sac: [skeleton]-tendon cell-ECM-coelothelium. A typical invertebrate pattern of epithelial organisation is a single, continuous sheet of polarised cells, connected by belt desmosomes and septate junctions, and resting on a collagenous extracellular matrix. Although previous studies demonstrated that polypide-specific epithelia of Horneridae follow this model, here we show that the body wall may show significant deviations. Cell layers can lose the basement membrane and/or continuity of cell cover and cell contacts. Moreover, in portions of the body wall, the cell layer appears to be missing altogether; the zooidal orifice is covered by a thin naked cuticle largely devoid of underlying cells. Since epithelium is a two-way barrier against entry and loss of materials, it is unclear how hornerids avoid substance loss, while maintaining intracolonial metabolite transport with imperfect, sometimes incomplete, cell layers along large portions of their outer body surface.

The Skin's Barrier: A Cryo-EM Based Overview of its Architecture and Stepwise Formation.

A major role of the skin is to serve as a barrier toward the environment. The skin's permeability barrier consists of a lipid structure positioned in the stratum corneum. Recent progress in high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has allowed for elucidation of the architecture of the skin's barrier and its stepwise formation process representing the final stage of epidermal differentiation. In this review, we present an overview of the skin's barrier structure and its formation process, as evidenced by cryo-EM.

Human Epidermal Zinc Concentrations after Topical Application of ZnO Nanoparticles in Sunscreens.

Zinc oxide nanoparticle (ZnO NP)-based sunscreens are generally considered safe because the ZnO NPs do not penetrate through the outermost layer of the skin, the stratum corneum (SC). However, cytotoxicity of zinc ions in the viable epidermis (VE) after dissolution from ZnO NP and penetration into the VE is ill-defined. We therefore quantified the relative concentrations of endogenous and exogenous Zn using a rare stable zinc-67 isotope (67Zn) ZnO NP sunscreen applied to excised human skin and the cytotoxicity of human keratinocytes (HaCaT) using multiphoton microscopy, zinc-selective fluorescent sensing, and a laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) methodology. Multiphoton microscopy with second harmonic generation imaging showed that 67ZnO NPs were retained on the surface or within the superficial layers of the SC. Zn fluorescence sensing revealed higher levels of labile and intracellular zinc in both the SC and VE relative to untreated skin, confirming that dissolved zinc species permeated across the SC into the VE as ionic Zn and significantly not as ZnO NPs. Importantly, the LA-ICP-MS estimated exogenous 67Zn concentrations in the VE of 1.0 ± 0.3 µg/mL are much lower than that estimated for endogenous VE zinc of 4.3 ± 0.7 µg/mL. Furthermore, their combined total zinc concentrations in the VE are much lower than the exogenous zinc concentration of 21 to 31 µg/mL causing VE cytotoxicity, as defined by the half-maximal inhibitory concentration of exogenous 67Zn found in human keratinocytes (HaCaT). This speaks strongly for the safety of ZnO NP sunscreens applied to intact human skin and the associated recent US FDA guidance.

Validation study of a new reconstructed human epidermis model EPiTRI for in vitro skin irritation test according to OECD guidelines.

Following the global trend of reducing animal testing, various reconstructed human epidermis (RHE) models for skin irritation test (SIT) have been developed, verified, validated and included in OECD TG 439. We developed a new RHE called EPiTRI and a SIT method using EPiTRI (EPiTRI-SIT model) following the OECD guidelines. EPiTRI possesses morphological, biochemical and physiological properties similar to human epidermis with well-differentiated multilayered viable cells with barrier function. The EPiTRI-SIT model was tested for 20 reference chemicals in Performance Standard of OECD TG 439 (GD 220), showing good predictive capacity with 100% sensitivity, 70% specificity and 85% accuracy. EPiTRI had sensitivity in detecting di-n-propyl disulphate, as an irritant chemical (UN GHS Category 2), whereas most validated reference methods detected it as a non-irritant. An international validation study of EPiTRI-SIT was conducted in four laboratories to confirm the within- and between-laboratory reproducibility, as well as predictive capacity. The phase I/II within-laboratory and between-laboratory reproducibility was 100%/95% and 95%, respectively. The overall sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of EPiTRI-SIT was 96%, 70% and 83%, respectively, which fulfilled the OECD criteria. Thus, EPiTRI, meets the criteria of Performance Standards of OECD TG 439 (GD 220) and is suitable for screening irritating chemicals in vitro.

Unbound Corneocyte Lipid Envelopes in 12R-Lipoxygenase Deficiency Support a Specific Role in Lipid-Protein Cross-Linking.

Loss-of-function mutations in arachidonate lipoxygenase 12B (ALOX12B) are an important cause of autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis (ARCI). 12R-lipoxygenase (12R-LOX), the protein product of ALOX12B, has been proposed to covalently bind the corneocyte lipid envelope (CLE) to the proteinaceous corneocyte envelope, thereby providing a scaffold for the assembly of barrier-providing, mature lipid lamellae. To test this hypothesis, an in-depth ultrastructural examination of CLEs was performed in ALOX12B-/- human and Alox12b-/- mouse epidermis, extracting samples with pyridine to distinguish covalently attached CLEs from unbound (ie, noncovalently bound) CLEs. ALOX12B--/- stratum corneum contained abundant pyridine-extractable (ie, unbound) CLEs, compared with normal stratum corneum. These unbound CLEs were associated with defective post-secretory lipid processing, and were specific to 12R-LOX deficiency, because they were not observed with deficiency of the related ARCI-associated proteins, patatin-like phospholipase 1 (Pnpla1) or abhydrolase domain containing 5 (Abhd5). These results suggest that 12R-LOX contributes specifically to CLE-corneocyte envelope cross-linking, which appears to be a prerequisite for post-secretory lipid processing, and provide insights into the pathogenesis of 12R-LOX deficiency in this subtype of ARCI, as well as other conditions that display a defective CLE.

Ultrastructural observations on the oncomiracidium epidermis and adult tegument of Discocotyle sagittata, a monogenean gill parasite of salmonids.

During their different life stages, parasites undergo remarkable morphological, physiological, and behavioral "metamorphoses" to meet the needs of their changing habitats. This is even true for ectoparasites, such as the monogeneans, which typically have a free-swimming larval stage (oncomiracidium) that seeks out and attaches to the external surfaces of fish where they mature. Before any obvious changes occur, there are ultrastructural differences in the oncomiracidium's outer surface that prepare it for a parasitic existence. The present findings suggest a distinct variation in timing of the switch from oncomiracidia epidermis to the syncytial structure of the adult tegument and so, to date, there are three such categories within the Monogenea: (1) Nuclei of both ciliated cells and interciliary cytoplasm are shed from the surface layer and the epidermis becomes a syncytial layer during the later stages of embryogenesis; (2) nuclei of both ciliated cells and interciliary syncytium remain distinct and the switch occurs later after the oncomiracidia hatch (as in the present study); and (3) the nuclei remain distinct in the ciliated epidermis but those of the interciliary epidermis are lost during embryonic development. Here we describe how the epidermis of the oncomiracidium of Discocotyle sagittata is differentiated into two regions, a ciliated cell layer and an interciliary, syncytial cytoplasm, both of which are nucleated. The interciliary syncytium extends in-between and underneath the ciliated cells and sometimes covers part of their apical surfaces, possibly the start of their shedding process. The presence of membranous whorls and pyknotic nuclei over the surface are indicative of membrane turnover suggesting that the switch in epidermis morphology is already initiated at this stage. The body tegument and associated putative sensory receptors of subadult and adult D. sagittata are similar to those in other monogeneans.

Skin barrier dysfunction and filaggrin.

Skin barrier dysfunction caused by endogenous or exogenous factors can lead to various disorders such as xerosis cutis, ichthyoses, and atopic dermatitis. Filaggrin is a pivotal structural protein of the stratum corneum (SC) and provides natural moisturizing factors that play a role in skin barrier functions. Filaggrin aggregates keratin filaments, resulting in the formation of a keratin network, which binds cornified envelopes and collapse keratinocytes to flattened corneocytes. This complex network contributes to the physical strength of the skin. Filaggrin is degraded by caspase-14, calpain 1, and bleomycin hydrolases into amino acids and amino acid metabolites such as trans-urocanic acid and pyrrolidone carboxylic acid, which are pivotal natural moisturizing factors in the SC. Accordingly, filaggrin is important for the pathophysiology of skin barrier disorders, and its deficiency or dysfunction leads to a variety of skin disorders. Here, the roles and biology of filaggrin, related skin diseases, and a therapeutic strategy targeting filaggrin are reviewed. In addition, several drug candidates of different mode of actions targeting filaggrin, along with their clinical efficacy, are discussed.

Nucleoporin NUP205 plays a critical role in cilia and congenital disease.

Ciliopathies affect a variety of tissues during development including the heart, kidneys, respiratory tract, and retina. Though an increasing number of monogenic causes of ciliopathies have been described, many remain unexplained. Recently, recessive variants in NUP93 and NUP205 encoding two proteins of the inner ring of the nuclear pore complex were implicated as causes of steroid resistant nephrotic syndrome. In addition, we previously found that the inner ring nucleoporins NUP93 and NUP188 function in proper left-right patterning in developing embryos via a role at the cilium. Here, we describe the role of an additional inner ring nucleoporin NUP205 in cilia biology and establishment of normal organ situs. Using knockdown in Xenopus, we show that Nup205 depletion results in loss of cilia and abnormal cardiac morphology. Furthermore, by transmission electron microscopy, we observe a loss of cilia and mispositioning of intracellular ciliary structures such as basal bodies and rootlets upon depleting inner ring nucleoporins. We describe a model wherein NUP93 interacting with either NUP188 or NUP205 is necessary for cilia. We thus provide evidence that dysregulation of inner ring nucleoporin genes that have been identified in patients may contribute to pathogenesis through cilia dysfunction.

Mutations in 3ß-hydroxysteroid-δ8, δ7-isomerase paradoxically benefit epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis in mice.

Inherited or acquired blockade of distal steps in the cholesterol synthetic pathway results in ichthyosis, due to reduced cholesterol production and/or the accumulation of toxic metabolic precursors, while inhibition of epidermal cholesterol synthesis compromises epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis. We showed here that 3ß-hydroxysteroid-δ8, δ7-isomerase-deficient mice (TD), an analog for CHILD syndrome in humans, exhibited not only lower basal transepidermal water loss rates, but also accelerated permeability barrier recovery despite the lower expression levels of mRNA for epidermal differentiation marker-related proteins and lipid synthetic enzymes. Moreover, TD mice displayed low skin surface pH, paralleled by increased expression levels of mRNA for sodium/hydrogen exchanger 1 (NHE1) and increased antimicrobial peptide expression, compared with wild-type (WT) mice, which may compensate for the decreased differentiation and lipid synthesis. Additionally, in comparison with WT controls, TD mice showed a significant reduction in ear thickness following challenges with either phorbol ester or oxazolone. However, TD mice exhibited growth retardation. Together, these results demonstrate that 3ß-hydroxysteroid-δ8, δ7-isomerase deficiency does not compromise epidermal permeability barrier in mice, suggesting that alterations in epidermal function depend on which step of the cholesterol synthetic pathway is interrupted. But whether these findings in mice could be mirrored in humans remains to be determined.

Tweedle proteins form extracellular two-dimensional structures defining body and cell shape in Drosophila melanogaster.

Tissue function and shape rely on the organization of the extracellular matrix (ECM) produced by the respective cells. Our understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms is limited. Here, we show that extracellular Tweedle (Twdl) proteins in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster form two adjacent two-dimensional sheets underneath the cuticle surface and above a distinct layer of dityrosinylated and probably elastic proteins enwrapping the whole body. Dominant mutations in twdl genes cause ectopic spherical aggregation of Twdl proteins that recruit dityrosinylated proteins at their periphery within lower cuticle regions. These aggregates perturb parallel ridges at the surface of epidermal cells that have been demonstrated to be crucial for body shaping. In one scenario, hence, this disorientation of epidermal ridges may explain the squatty phenotype of Twdl mutant larvae. In an alternative scenario, this phenotype may be due to the depletion of the dityrosinylated and elastic layer, and the consequent weakening of cuticle resistance against the internal hydrostatic pressure. According to Barlow's formula describing the distribution of internal pressure forces in pipes in dependence of pipe wall material properties, it follows that this reduction in turn causes lateral expansion at the expense of the antero-posterior elongation of the body.

Acute skin barrier disruption alters the secretion of lamellar bodies via the multilayered expression of ABCA12.

BACKGROUND: The skin barrier consists of multiple lipid-enriched layers, which are characterized by lamellar repeated structures within the intercellular space. Sodium lauryl sulfate is a well-known substance that can disrupt the skin barrier. The mechanisms underlying the barrier repair process, especially the influence of topical sodium lauryl sulfate treatment on lipid transport in the barrier recovery phase, remain unresolved. OBJECTIVE: To understand the process of reconstruction of the intercellular lipid layer of the skin after acute barrier disruption by sodium lauryl sulfate treatment in vivo. METHODS: Female hairless mice were treated with 3 % sodium lauryl sulfate. Transepidermal water loss measurement, histopathological analysis, and gene expression analysis were performed from 1 to 288 h after the topical application of sodium lauryl sulfate. Western blot analysis, immunofluorescence staining, and transmission electron microscopy analysis were performed to examine the expression level of ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A, member 12 (ABCA12), and the secretion level of lamellar bodies. RESULTS: We observed rapid hyper-keratinization at the stratum corneum and the subsequent concurrent secretion of lamellar bodies into the intercellular space of the stratum corneum during the process of skin barrier recovery. ABCA12 expression associated with lipid transportation into lamellar bodies was transiently upregulated and observed in multiple layers in the upper epidermis, especially in the stratum granulosum. CONCLUSION: The skin reacts appropriately to maintain its barrier function by first initiating hyper-keratinization and then increasing lamellar body secretion. Activation of ABCA12 is an essential factor for the recovery of skin barrier function.

Alterations in the epidermis of the carp, Labeo rohita (Cyprinidae: Cypriniformes), infected by the bacteria, Aeromonas hydrophila: A scanning electron microscopic, histopathological and immunohistochemical investigation.

This study was carried out to comprehend the pathogenicity of the bacteria in the epidermis of Labeo rohita inoculated with Aeromonas hydrophila. Alterations in the histopathology of the epidermis were examined using scanning electron microscopy, light microscopy and the localization of iNOS and caspase 3 + ve cells by means of immunohistochemical methods. Skin samples obtained from infected fish at different intervals 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 days showed significant changes in the cellular components of the epidermis. Epithelial cells often appeared hypertrophied with fragmented and loosely arranged microridges, and in the process of exfoliation. Mucous goblet cells increased significantly in density. Club cells showed degenerative changes, often with simultaneous confluence of adjacent cells and release of their contents. Increase in density of iNOS and caspase 3 + ve cells indicates inflammatory response and apoptosis. This study could provide valuable information on the pathogenesis of the disease, and disease outbreaks in farmed fish. Further, it could provide useful guidelines for fish farmers to take preventive measures for the control of the disease.

Loss of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) does not affect epidermal development or UVB-induced apoptosis but does accelerate UVB-induced carcinogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Mitochondrial morphology is controlled by fission and fusion. Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1, dynamin-1-like protein (Dnml1)) regulates mitochondrial fission, which is associated with cell division and apoptosis. We previously reported that DRP1 is indispensable for cell growth in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. However, little is known about Drp1 in normal epidermis/keratinocytes. OBJECTIVES: We investigated the function of Drp1 in normal epidermis/keratinocytes. METHODS: Epidermis-specific Drp1 knockout (EKO) mice were analyzed. RESULTS: Epidermal development in the EKO mice were indistinguishable from those in the wild-type (WT) mice. Ultrastructural analysis and immunohistochemistry revealed that the mitochondria of keratinocytes in the EKO mice were neither elongated nor constricted. Drp1 knockdown did not diminish the cell growth of normal human keratinocytes. Both in vivo and in vitro, UVB-induced apoptosis in the EKO epidermis and keratinocytes did not differ from that in the WT mice. In chronic UVB-irradiation, the loss of Drp1 sensitized the epidermis to the development of skin tumors. Clinically, DRP1 is expressed more highly in sun-exposed skin than in non-exposed skin in individuals under age 40, but not in those over age 60. CONCLUSION: EKO mice demonstrate that Drp1 is dispensable for the development and apoptosis of the epidermis. Drp1 plays critical roles in malignant tumors; thus, the molecular machinery of mitochondrial dynamics involving Drp1 could be a novel therapeutic target for malignant keratinocytic lesions. On the other hand, the anti-tumorigenic role of Drp1 in chronic UVB-induced carcinogenesis need to be further investigated.

Epidermal Regeneration Induced by Comfrey Extract: A Study by Light and Electron Microscopy.

INTRODUCTION: An accelerated healing of superficial wounds was demonstrated in clinical trials with a topical comfrey preparation (Symphytum × uplandicum Nyman). The effect has previously not been examined in skin models. METHODS: An established in vitro model of epidermal cells with the typical strata was used for the observation of effects of applied substances on skin regeneration. Damage corresponding to a typical abrasion was created on day 1 by punching an opening into the epidermal fine structure down to the stratum basale. Samples were either untreated (controls) or exposed to comfrey cream on days 2, 3, 5, and 6. Tissue samples were taken for light and electron microscopy on days 1, 4, and 7. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Application of comfrey cream led to a quicker regeneration of skin cells and to an earlier differentiation of the cells towards a normal fine structure with a visible distinction of epidermal strata, keratin, and corneocyte formation within 4-7 days. The study covered the early days of skin regeneration and confirms the benefits observed in published clinical trials and non-interventional studies in patients with abrasions.

General and specific microscopic characteristics of the dorsal tail scales and the spines of the crest in the tuatara Sphenodon pucntatus (Reptilia; Rhynchocephalia; Sphenodontidae).

Dorsal crest scales and those of the tail spines of the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) represent different specializations involved in display and protection. Erection of the dorsal crest occurs in males during combat and courtship, but tail spines are not noticeably involved in these activities. In both scale derivatives corneous beta proteins (CBPs, formerly called beta-keratins) and intermediate filaments keratins (IFKs) were determined by immunolabelling. The dermis is dense with few sparse fibrocytes surrounded by collagen bundles, the latter rather randomly oriented in the crest scales. In the tail ridge scales banded collagen I fibrils form more regular, orthogonally aligned bundles of alternating layers with connections to the basal epidermal membrane. A conglomerate of dermal melanonophores and iridophores is present under the epidermis. The iridophores are the likely origin of the whitish colour of the crest. The epidermis shows a thicker beta-layer with serrated/indented corneocytes in the tail scales while the beta layer is reduced in the crest but contains CBPs. A relatively thick mesos layer is present in both scale derivatives, especially in the crest where its role, aside from limiting transpiration, is not known. The alpha-layer is formed by corneocytes with irregular perimeter and sparse desmosomal remnants. The high labelling intensity for CBPs in the beta-layer disappears in the mesos layer but occurs, albeit strongly reduced, in the alpha-layer as in the other body scales. The take-home message is that the dense dermis and its apical beta-layer strengthen mechanically the ridge spines while the crest is mainly supported by the firm but pliable and less dense or regular dermis.