[Infected nonunion: diagnostic and therapeutic work-up]. / Infizierte Pseudarthrose: diagnostischer und therapeutischer Ablauf.

BACKGROUND: Septic nonunion is one of the major complications in fracture healing. The challenge is to identify the infection as the cause of nonunion first and then to achieve healing of the infection and the bone. OBJECTIVE: Because of the more heterogeneous appearance of an infected nonunion, the prevalence of germ detection in surgical nonunion revision is often underestimated. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In a retrospective study between 2010 and 2017, 86 patients with radiologically confirmed femoral shaft nonunion without clinical evidence and unremarkable medical history of a florid infection as the cause of nonunion, who had undergone primary single-stage surgical nonunion revision were analyzed. At least four intraoperatively obtained samples were evaluated for microbiological diagnosis. A distinction was made between tissue samples with subsequent 48­h short-term incubation and tissue samples with 14-day long-term cultivation. The finding "germ detection" was made if at least two of the samples demonstrated bacterial growth. RESULTS: In 18 of 86 patients with a nonunion preoperatively judged to be aseptic, positive bacterial evidence was obtained after short-term incubation. After long-term cultivation, positive bacterial detection was possible in 38 of 86 patients with a femoral shaft nonunion initially classified as aseptic. Regarding potential risk factors, the two groups demonstrated no relevant differences. In 29 patients, 1 pathogen was isolated from the obtained samples, whereas in the remaining 9 patients, a mixed culture with an average of 2.9 ± 0.5 different bacteria was detected. Identification revealed mainly low-virulence bacteria, most commonly Staphylococcus epidermidis. CONCLUSION: If the preoperative diagnostics including clinical, laboratory and radiological examination as well as a careful anamnesis reveal indications of a possible infectious event, the surgical nonunion revision should be performed in two stages with specimen collection before definitive nonunion revision. For microbiological diagnosis, several representative tissue samples should independently be obtained from the nonunion site and incubated for 14 days. Only in the absence of evidence of septic nonunion is a single-stage procedure suggested.

Mucor as a cause of surgical site infection.

Mucor is an uncommon cause of surgical site infection. We present such a case after intramedullary nailing of the femur and discuss its presentation and management.

Paediatric infected femoral nonunion; mid-term results of a rare problem with a single-stage treatment and up to eleven and half years follow-up.

PURPOSE: Nonunion of femur fractures is a devastating disabling complication which is rare in children. The purpose of this study was to report the outcomes of treating infected femur nonunions in children by the Ilizarov fixator in one stage. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The study included 13 patients with unilateral infected nonunion of the femur with an average age of 9.1 years. The nonunion duration averaged 10.69 months. Ten cases were draining nonunions, and three patients had quiescent sinuses. Associated problems include shortening in all cases (mean 3.5 cm), joint stiffness (9 cases), and angular deformity (7 cases). The quiescent cases were treated by bloodless monofocal compression-distraction. Four draining cases were treated by debridement and compression with relengthening through nonunion site. The remaining six cases were treated by bifocal technique. RESULTS: The mean follow-up duration was 60.15 months. External fixation period averaged 5.3 months. Successful union was achieved in all patients. Recurrences of infection occurred in two cases including one with refracture and another one with late pathological fracture. Other complications included pin tract infections, one delayed union, two residual angular deformities, and 6 cm residual shortening in one patient. ASAMI bone results were excellent (8 patients), good (3 patients), fair (one patient), and poor (one patient). The functional results were excellent (9 cases), good (3cases), and fair (one case). CONCLUSIONS: The Ilizarov method provided a viable treatment option for treating paediatric infected femur nonunions in single stage of management with infection control in most cases and satisfactory outcomes.

Full Femoral Osteomyelitis Caused by Fusobacterium nucleatum in an Immunocompetent Adult: A Case Report.

CASE: We present a 46-year-old man who developed a full femoral osteomyelitis caused by Fusobacterium nucleatum. The subtle presentation of the infection and the late onset of appropriate antibiotic treatment caused a devastating bone quality of the full femur. CONCLUSIONS: A successful outcome was obtained with surgical debridement, antibiotics, and return to weight bearing guided by a laboratory and radiographic scale specially designed to avoid pathologic fractures toward his full functional recovery.

Osteomyelitis Caused by Bacillus Calmette-Guérin Vaccination in a Healthy Toddler.

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) osteomyelitis in immunocompetent children is a rare complication of BCG immunization which presents with nonspecific findings and often leads to delayed diagnosis. We report a 1-year and 10-month-old male infant with complaining of knee pain and limping for 5 months. He received surgical debridement due to suspicion of malignancy but BCG osteomyelitis of the distal femur was diagnosed with the culture of the specimens which revealed to have Mycobacterium bovis-BCG strain. He was successfully treated with antituberculous therapy lasting for 1 year.

Application of bacterial cellulose experimental dressings saturated with gentamycin for management of bone biofilm in vitro and ex vivo.

Bacterial cellulose is one of the most promising polymers of recent years. Herein, we present a possibility of BC application as a carrier of gentamycin antibiotic for the treatment and prevention of bone infections. We have shown that BC saturated with gentamycin significantly reduces the level of biofilm-forming bone pathogens, namely Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and displays very low cytotoxicity in vitro against osteoblast cell cultures. Another beneficial feature of our prototype dressing is prolonged release of gentamycin, which provides efficient protection from microbial contamination and subsequent infection. Moreover, it seems that bacterial cellulose (BC) alone without any antimicrobial added, may serve as a barrier by significantly hampering the ability of the pathogen to penetrate to the bone structure. Therefore, a gentamycin-saturated BC dressing may be considered as a possible alternative for gentamycin collagen sponge broadly used in clinical setting. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 108B:30-37, 2020.

Does the induced membrane have antibacterial properties? An experimental rat model of a chronic infected nonunion.

INTRODUCTION: The Masquelet procedure proved its efficiency in treating infected nonunion filling bony gaps up to 25 cm. Yet the use of local antibiotics is still questionable in the daily practice with lack of evidence regarding its usefulness in controlling infection. An experimental rat model is put in place to study the antibacterial properties of the induced membrane produced during the first stage of Masquelet. METHOD: Twenty-three-month-old wistar male rats are inoculated with a 0.5 mL solution of 10^8 CFU/mL MRSA over a critical fracture done on the right femur. Six weeks later, remaining 11 rats exhibiting signs of a chronic infection with a sinus tract and oozing pus along with radiological nonunion are used for a first stage Masquelet procedure. They are randomly divided into two groups with six rats having no local antibiotic in the cement mixture and five rats having 3 g of vancomycin mixed with gentamycin loaded cement. Six weeks later (twelve weeks from baseline), all eleven rats are euthanized and blood samples for C-reactive protein are withdrawn. The induced membrane is identified and resected along with bone fragments and sent for cultures and pathology. RESULTS: MRSA is isolated in the cultures of all six rats in the first group where no local antibiotic was added. Altered polymorphonuclears with abscess and pus are noted on four of six pathology samples. However in the second group where local antibiotics were added, three out of five rats exhibited eradication of MRSA (p = 0.034) and all samples did not exhibit clear infection signs on pathology. A pyo-epithelioid over a foreign body reaction is seen predominantly in this group demonstrating a regenerative process. DISCUSSION: The induced membrane does not have antimicrobial properties capable of overcoming an infected nonunion on its own. When local antibiotics were added during the first stage of the Masquelet procedure, new bone formation occurred indicating the need to control an infection in order for bone union to occur. CONCLUSION: Local antibiotics use in adjunction to extensive debridement is advisable during the first stage of a Masquelet procedure for an infected nonunion.

Risk factors associated with recurrence of extremity osteomyelitis treated with the induced membrane technique.

INTRODUCTION: Our aim was to observe the efficacy of the induced membrane technique in the treatment of extremity osteomyelitis and to analyse the causes of infection recurrence and its risk factors. METHODS: We retrospectively analysed 424 cases of extremity osteomyelitis treated with the induced membrane technique in our department between May 2013 and June 2017. Infection recurrence time, recurrence sites and other relevant information were collected, summarized, and analysed. RESULTS: A total of 424 patients were considered as "cured" of osteomyelitis after the first stage and the induced membrane technique was performed to rebuild the bone defects. After a mean follow-up of 31.6 (16-63) months, 52 patients had recurrence of infection, including 42 tibias and 10 femurs. The recurrence rate was 12.26%. Symptoms were relieved in 16 patients after intravenous antibiotic treatment. In the remaining 36 cases (8.49%), the infection was uncontrolled by intravenous antibiotics and surgical debridement was performed. The recurrence rate of infection of the tibia (16.22%) was higher than that of the femur (8.70%). The recurrence rate of post-traumatic osteomyelitis (14.66%) was significantly higher than that of hematogenous osteomyelitis (2.41%). Patients in whom Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated at the first stage had a recurrence rate of 28% (7/25), which was higher than that with the other isolated bacteria. Logistic regression analysis showed that repeated operations (≥3), post-traumatic osteomyelitis, and internal fixation at the first stage were risk factors for recurrence of infection, with odds ratios (ORs) of 2.30, 5.53 and 5.28 respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The induced membrane technique is an effective method in the treatment of extremity osteomyelitis, although infection recurs in some cases. Repeated operations, post-traumatic osteomyelitis, and internal fixation at the first stage were risk factors for recurrence of infection. P. aeruginosa isolated at the first stage, tibia osteomyelitis, the presence of sinus, or flaps may also be associated with recurrence of infection.

Early outcome of culture-negative infection in open fractures of the lower limb: A prospective study.

Background: Culture-negative infections in open long bone fractures are frequently encountered in clinical practice. We aimed to identify the rate and outcome of culture-negative infections in open long bone fractures of lower limb. Methodology: A prospective cohort study was conducted from November 2015 to May 2017 on Gustilo and Anderson Grade III open long bone fractures of the lower limb. Demographic data, injury details, time from injury to receiving antibiotics and index surgical procedure were noted. Length of hospital stay, number of additional surgeries and occurrence of complications were also noted. Patients with infected open fractures were grouped as culture positive or culture negative depending on the isolation of infecting microorganisms in deep intraoperative specimen. The clinical outcome of these two groups was statistically analysed. Results: A total of 231 patients with 275 open fractures involving the femur, tibia or fibula were studied. There was clinical signs of infection in 84 patients (36.4%) with 99 fractures (36%). Forty-three patients (51.2%) had positive cultures and remaining 41 patients had negative cultures (48.8%). The rate of culture-negative infection in open type III long bone fractures in our study was 17.7%. There was no statistical difference in the clinical outcome between culture-negative and culture-positive infections. Conclusion: Failure to identify an infective microorganism in the presence of clinical signs of infection is routinely seen in open fractures and needs to be treated aggressively.

Antibacterial Activity of Ag-Hydroxyapatite Coating Against Hematogenous Infection by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the Rat Femur.

Several antibacterial materials have been developed to prevent periprosthetic joint infection and thus prevent serious complications for patients and surgeons. However, no study has addressed the activity of antibacterial materials against hematogenous infection. The present study evaluated the antibacterial activity of a silver-containing hydroxyapatite-coated implant against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) hematogenous infection. Implants coated with hydroxyapatite and silver-hydroxyapatite were inserted into rats' right and left femurs, respectively, after which the animals were infected with S. aureus via a tail vessel. About 107 colony-forming units was the optimal bacterial number for the establishment of S. aureus hematogenous infection. Bacterial loads and C-reactive protein in the blood were measured to confirm bacteremia and inflammation. Fourteen days after the infection, bacterial loads were statistically lower in the femurs containing silver-hydroxyapatite-coated implants than in those with hydroxyapatite-coated implants (p = 0.022). Thus, silver-hydroxyapatite-coated implants might provide antibacterial activity against MRSA hematogenous infection in the postoperative period. © 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 37:2655-2660, 2019.

A murine femoral ostectomy model with hardware exchange to assess antibiotic-impregnated spacers for implant-associated osteomyelitis.

Implant-associated osteomyelitis is a chronic infection that complicates orthopaedic surgeries. Once infected, 50 % of patients suffer treatment failure, resulting in high healthcare costs. While various small animal models have been developed to investigate the efficacy of prophylactic and therapeutic treatments, the minute scale of murine-model bone and hardware has been prohibitive for evaluating interventions with a complete implant exchange in the setting of an infected critical defect. To address this, the aim of the present study was to develop a murine femur model in which an initial mid-diaphyseal infection was established by surgical implantation of a titanium screw contaminated with bioluminescent Staphylococcus aureus (Xen36). 7 d after the infection was established, an ostectomy was performed to remove the middle segment (3 mm flanking the infected screw hole) and a bone-cement spacer, with or without impregnated gentamicin, was secured with a plate and screws to fix the septic segmental defect. Longitudinal bioluminescent imaging revealed a significant decrease in Xen36 growth following one-stage revision, with the antibiotic-impregnated spacer treated systemically with vancomycin (p < 0.05). This result was corroborated by a significant decrease in colony forming units (CFU) recovered from spacer, bone, soft tissue and hardware 12 d post-operative (p < 0.05). However, ~ 105 CFU/g Xen36 still persisted within the bone despite a clinical therapeutic regimen. Therefore, the model enables the investigation of new therapeutic strategies to improve upon the current standard of care in a mouse model of implant-associated osteomyelitis that employs reconstruction of a critical defect.

Actinomycotic osteomyelitis of a long bone in an immunocompetent adult: a case report and literature review.

BACKGROUND: Actinomycosis is a rare, chronic granulomatous disease caused by Gram-positive anaerobic bacteria that colonize the oral cavity. Cervicofacial actinomycosis is the most frequent clinical presentation of actinomycosis, but hematogenous osteomyelitis at distant sites can occur in rare instance in immunocompromised or pediatric patients, only a few cases have been reported in healthy patients. Here we described a new case of distal femur osteomyelitis caused by Actinomyces in an adult patient who was immunocompetent and had no predisposing factors. CASE PRESENTATION: A woman aged 52 years with no history of trauma presented with severe pain, swelling, and increased local heat in the proximal area of the right knee 3 weeks after she first noticed discomfort. Magnetic resonance imaging showed persistent osteomyelitis of the distal metaphysis and diaphysis of the femur with a multifocal intraosseous abscess pocket. An incision and drainage of the abscess were conducted. The tissue culture, fungus culture, acid fast bacillus (AFB) culture, AFB smear, and tuberculosis polymerase chain reaction test results were negative. A pathologic examination confirmed the presence of actinomycosis. The patient was successfully treated with intravenous penicillin G for 8 weeks followed by oral amoxicillin-clavulanate for 6 weeks with repeated surgical debridement and drainage. After a 5-year follow up, the patient had no signs of recurring infection or complications and she had full range of movement in the affected knee. CONCLUSIONS: Although rare, actinomycotic osteomyelitis can occur in healthy people. Furthermore, actinomycotic osteomyelitis is easily misdiagnosed as tuberculosis in areas with a high prevalence of tuberculosis. To detect and identify the bacteria accurately, pathologic examination should be performed as well as culture tests, because the probability for culture confirmation of actinomycosis is quite low. The initial treatment is vital to a successful outcome without ostectomy or amputation.

Antibiotic-eluting resorbable bone-void filler evaluated in a large animal infection prevention model.

Periprosthetic infection in total knee arthroplasty is a difficult-to-treat complication. Current implant revision procedures use non-degradable, antibiotic-loaded bone cement for local antimicrobial delivery. As a permanent foreign body, antibiotic-loaded bone cement is susceptible to bacterial colonisation after antibiotic release. In this first step, of a multi-study approach, an infection prevention model assessed a resorbable, antibiotic-eluting bone-void filler for preventing infection in a large animal model. Four groups of sheep were utilised to monitor antibiotic-eluting bone-void filler-induced osteoconductivity, infection prevention, and implant resorption. Explanted bone and surrounding tissues were evaluated using quantitative microbiology, backscattered electron microscopy, bone mineral apposition, and Sanderson's staining at the 12-week endpoint. Control groups received commercially available bone-void filler, implanted into a surgically created defect on the right medial femoral condyle. Experimental groups received six antibiotic-eluting bone-void filler devices placed into identically sized defects. One control and one experimental group tested osteoconductivity. An additional control and experimental group were each inoculated with 5 × 105 colony forming units/mL Staphylococcus aureus during implant placement for bactericidal effects. Osteoconductivity was confirmed for both antibiotic-eluting bone-void filler and commercially available bone-void filler. The experimental group inoculated with S. aureus showed no detectable bacteria at the study's 12-week endpoint, while infection controls required euthanasia 6-11 d post-inoculation due to infection. This large animal study validated this antibiotic-eluting bone-void filler as osteoconductive, in situ degradable, and bactericidal. All groups, except the infection control, exhibited bone formation comparable to commercial filler ProOsteon®500R.

An in vitro biofilm model of Staphylococcus aureus infection of bone.

Chronic osteomyelitis is difficult to treat, with biofilm growth and the diffusion barrier to antibiotics presented by bone contributory factors. The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate an in vitro model of osteomyelitis. A bioluminescent strain of Staphylococcus aureus was grown in bone blocks made from bovine femur. Light output was insufficient for detection of bacterial cells within bone by 24 h and viable counting of crushed bone blocks was used to determine bacterial survival. Challenge of 72 h biofilms with gentamicin and daptomycin for 24 h demonstrated that only concentrations of 10 times the clinical peak serum target levels (100 mg l-1 gentamicin and 1000 mg l-1 daptomycin) resulted in significant reductions in cell viability compared to controls. Once daily dosing over 7 days resulted in ≥3 log reductions in cell numbers by 48 h. Thereafter no significant reduction was achieved, although emergence of resistance was suppressed. Determination of antibiotic concentration in bone blocks over 7 days indicated that neither agent was able to consistently reach levels in bone of >10% of the original dose. The model was, therefore, able to demonstrate the challenges posed by biofilm growth on and within bone. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The majority of studies of antibiotic efficacy in the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis are carried out in animals. We developed an in vitro model of Staphylococcus aureus infection of bone to evaluate the ability of antibiotics to eradicate mature biofilms on surfaces analogous to necrotic bone. The results demonstrated the difficulties which occur in osteomyelitis treatment, with only very high concentrations of antibiotic able to penetrate the bone sufficiently to reduce bacterial survival whilst still failing to eradicate biofilms. This model could be of use in initial screening of novel compounds intended for use in the treatment of osteomyelitis.

Bacterial DNA is associated with tunnel widening in failed ACL reconstructions.

PURPOSE: To determine if tunnel widening, defined as change in maximal tunnel diameter from the time of initial bone tunnel drilling to revision surgery is associated with bacterial deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) presence and concentration in torn graft tissue from failed anterior cruciate ligament reconstructions (ACLRs). METHODS: Thirty-four consecutive revision ACLRs were included (mean age 27.3 years SD 10.9; median time to failure 4.9 years range 105 days-20 years). Graft selection of the failed reconstruction was 68% autograft, 26% allograft, and 6% autograft/allograft hybrid with a mean drilled tunnel diameter of 8.4 mm SD 0.8. Maximal tunnel diameters prior to revision were measured on pre-operative three-dimensional imaging and compared to drilled tunnel diameters at the time of the previous reconstruction. Tissue biopsies of the failed graft were obtained from tibial, femoral, and intraarticular segments. Sterile water left open to air during revision ACLRs and tissue from primary ACLRs were used as negative controls. Clinical cultures were obtained on all revision ACLRs and PCR with universal bacterial primer on all cases and negative controls. Fluorescence microscopy was used to confirm the presence and location of biofilms in two patients with retrieved torn graft tissue and fixation material. Amount of tunnel widening was compared to bacterial DNA presence as well as bacterial DNA concentration via Welch ANOVA. RESULTS: Bacterial DNA was present in 29/34 (85%) revision ACLRs, 1/5 (20%) of primary ACLR controls and 0/3 (0%) sterile water controls. Cultures were positive (coagulase negative Staphylococcus sp.) in one case, which also had the greatest degree of tunnel widening. Femoral widening was greater in cases with detectable bacterial DNA (mean widening 2.6 mm SD 3.0) versus without (mean 0.3 mm SD 0.6) (p = 0.003) but was unaffected by bacterial DNA concentration (p = 0.44). Tibial widening was not associated with the presence of bacterial DNA (n.s.); however, higher bacterial DNA concentrations were observed in cases with tibial widening ≥ 3.0 mm (median 2.47 ng bacterial DNA/µg total DNA) versus widening < 3.0 mm (median 0.97 ng bacterial DNA/µg total DNA) (p = 0.046). Tunnel widening was not associated with time to failure, graft selection, or number of prior surgeries (n.s., all comparisons). Fluorescence microscopy confirmed the presence of biofilms on ruptured tendon graft as well as fixation material in 2/2 cases. CONCLUSION: Bacterial DNA is commonly encountered on failed ACLR grafts and can form biofilms. Bacterial DNA does not cause clinically apparent infection symptoms but is associated with tunnel widening. Further research is needed to determine whether graft decontamination protocols can reduce graft bacterial colonization rates, ACLR tunnel widening or ACLR failure risk. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic III.

Intramedullary Antibiotic Delivery for Emphysematous Osteomyelitis of the Femur.

The authors present a case of bilateral femoral emphysematous osteomyelitis caused by Escherichia coli in a 60-year-old woman with rheumatoid arthritis who was receiving long-term prednisone therapy. The infection in both femoral shafts was eradicated with surgical debridement, followed by insertion of intramedullary rods composed of culture-specific antibiotic cement into the femoral canals in conjunction with 6 weeks of intravenous antibiotics. The rods were subsequently removed, and no signs of further osteomyelitis were recognized at follow-up. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first case of its kind reported in the orthopedic literature. Emphysematous osteomyelitis, a rare and dangerous entity, can be successfully managed by intramedullary antibiotic delivery in the subacute setting. [Orthopedics. 2019; 42(1):e128-e130.].

A mid-Cretaceous ambrosia fungus, Paleoambrosia entomophila gen. nov. et sp. nov. (Ascomycota: Ophiostomatales) in Burmese (Myanmar) amber, and evidence for a femoral mycangium.

An ambrosia fungus is described from filamentous sporodochia adjacent to a wood-boring ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Platypodinae) in mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. Yeast-like propagules and hyphal fragments of Paleoambrosia entomophila gen. nov. et sp. nov. occur in glandular sac mycangia located inside the femur of the beetle. This is the first record of a fossil ambrosia fungus, showing that symbiotic associations between wood-boring insects and ectosymbiotic fungi date back some 100 million years ago. The present finding moves the origin of fungus-growing by insects from the Oligocene to the mid-Cretaceous and suggests a Gondwanan origin.

Late recurrence of an osteoarticular infection caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae in a child.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is an opportunistic pathogen in neonates. A 23-day-old newborn developed septic arthritis of the right hip due to an ESBL-producing strain. A recurrence on the knee was observed at 4 years of age. A molecular investigation confirmed the clonal link of the strains responsible for the two infections and allowed us to identify virulence factors.

Dual-functional 3D-printed composite scaffold for inhibiting bacterial infection and promoting bone regeneration in infected bone defect models.

Infection is one of the pivotal causes of nonunion in large bone defect after trauma or tumor resection. Three-dimensional (3D) composite scaffold with multifunctional-therapeutic properties offer many advantages over allogenic or xenogenic bone grafting for the restoration of challenging infected bone defects. In the previous study, we demonstrated that quaternized chitosan (HACC)-grafted polylactide-co-glycolide (PLGA)/hydroxyapatite (HA) scaffold (PLGA/HA/HACC) via 3D-printing technique exhibited significantly improved antimicrobial and osteoconductive property in vitro, together with good biocompatibility in vivo. Hence, the present study further investigated whether such an innovative bone substitute could effectively inhibit the bacterial biofilm formation and promote bone regeneration in vivo. To evaluate the bone repairing effects of the 3D-printed scaffolds on infected cortical and cancellous bone defects scenarios, eighty female Sprague Dawley rats and thirty-six female New Zealand white rabbits were used to establish infected femoral shaft defect and condyle defect model, respectively. X-ray, micro-CT, microbiological and histopathological analyses were used to assess the anti-infection and bone repairing potential of the dual-functional porous scaffolds. We observed that HACC-grafted PLGA/HA scaffolds exhibited significantly enhanced anti-infection and bone regeneration capability in different infected bone defect models. In addition, the degradation rate of the scaffolds appeared to be closely related to the progress of infection, influencing the bone repairing potential of the scaffolds in infected bone defects models. In general, this investigation is of great significance as it demonstrates promising applications of the 3D-printed dual-functional PLGA/HA/HACC scaffold for repairing different types of bone defect under infection. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Currently, it is clinically urgent to exploit bone substitutes with potential of bacterial inhibition and bone regeneration. However, bone scaffolds with relatively low risks of bacterial resistance and tissue toxicity used for combating infected bone defects remain to be developed. We have reported that quaternized chitosan (HACC)-grafted 3D-printed PLGA/HA composite scaffold had enhanced in vitro antimicrobial and osteoconductive property, and well cytocompatibility in our published study. This continuing study further confirmed that HACC-grafted PLGA/HA scaffolds exhibited significantly enhanced anti-infection and bone regeneration efficacy in both cortical bone defect in rat and cancellous bone defect in rabbit under infection. Meanwhile, we also found that the degradation rate of the scaffolds seemed to be closely related to the progress of infection, influencing the bone repairing potential of the scaffolds in infected bone defects models. In conclusion, this study provides significant opportunities to develop a 3D-printed bone scaffold with dual functions used for infected bone defects in future plastic and orthopaedic surgery.