Regional and patient-related factors influencing the willingness to use general practitioners as coordinators of the treatment in northern Germany - results of a cross-sectional observational study.

BACKGROUND: In most countries, the general practitioner (GP) is the first point of contact in the healthcare system and coordinator of healthcare. However, in Germany it is possible to consult an outpatient specialist even without referral. Coordination by a GP might thus reduce health expenditures and inequalities in the healthcare system. The study describes the patients' willingness/commitment to use the GP as coordinator of healthcare and identifies regional and patient-related factors associated with the aforementioned commitment to the GP. METHODS: Cross-sectional observational study using a standardised telephone patient survey in northern Germany. All counties and independent cities within a radius of 120 km around Hamburg were divided into three regional categories (urban areas, environs, rural areas) and stratified proportionally to the population size. Patients who had consulted the GP within the previous three months, and had been patients of the practice for at least three years were randomly selected from medical records of primary care practices in these districts and recruited for the study. Multivariate linear regression models adjusted for random effects at the level of federal states, administrative districts and practices were used as statistical analysis methods. RESULTS: Eight hundred eleven patients (25.1%) from 186 practices and 34 administrative districts were interviewed. The patient commitment to a GP attained an average of 20 out of 24 possible points. Significant differences were found by sex (male vs. female: + 1.14 points, p < 0.001), morbidity (+ 0.10 per disease, p = 0.043), education (high vs. low: - 1.74, p < 0.001), logarithmised household net adjusted disposable income (- 0.93 per step on the logarithmic scale, p = 0.004), regional category (urban areas: - 0.85, p = 0.022; environs: - 0.80, p = 0.045) and healthcare utilisation (each GP contact: + 0.30, p < 0.001; each contact to a medical specialist: - 0.75, p = 0.018). Professional situation and age were not significantly associated with the GP commitment. CONCLUSION: On average, the patients' commitment to their GP was relatively strong, but there were large differences between patient groups. An increase in the patient commitment to the GP could be achieved through better patient information and targeted interventions, e.g. to women or patients from regions of higher urban density. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02558322).

Suitability of the German version of the Manchester Triage System to redirect emergency department patients to general practitioner care: a prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the suitability of the German version of the Manchester Triage System (MTS) as a potential tool to redirect emergency department (ED) patients to general practitioner care. Such tools are currently being discussed in the context of reorganisation of emergency care in Germany. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Single centre University Hospital Emergency Department. PARTICIPANTS: Adult, non-surgical ED patients. EXPOSURE: A non-urgent triage category was defined as a green or blue triage category according to the German version of the MTS. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Surrogate parameters for short-term risk (admission rate, diagnoses, length of hospital stay, admission to the intensive care unit, in-hospital and 30-day mortality) and long-term risk (1-year mortality). RESULTS: A total of 1122 people presenting to the ED participated in the study. Of these, 31.9% (n=358) received a non-urgent triage category and 68.1% (n=764) were urgent. Compared with non-urgent ED presentations, those with an urgent triage category were older (median age 60 vs 56 years, p=0.001), were more likely to require hospital admission (47.8% vs 29.6%) and had higher in-hospital mortality (1.6% vs 0.8%). There was no significant difference observed between non-urgent and urgent triage categories for 30-day mortality (1.2% [n=4] vs 2.2% [n=15]; p=0.285) or for 1-year mortality (7.9% [n=26] vs 10.5% [n=72]; p=0.190). Urgency was not a significant predictor of 1-year mortality in univariate (HR=1.35; 95% CI 0.87 to 2.12; p=0.185) and multivariate regression analyses (HR=1.20; 95% CI 0.77 to 1.89; p=0.420). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest the German MTS is unsuitable to safely identify patients for redirection to non-ED based GP care. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: U1111-1119-7564; Post-results.

Development and Validation of the Gatekeeper Behavior Scale.

BACKGROUND: Community-based gatekeeper trainings are effective tools in increasing gatekeeper skills but few validated measures assess impact. AIMS: This study aimed at determining the validity of an 11-item Gatekeeper Behavior Scale (GBS) to assess gatekeeper skills that predict behavior. METHOD: To validate the scale, 8,931 users were administered GBS surveys at pretraining, posttraining, and follow-up periods. The training was one of five from the suite of online At-Risk mental health learning simulations for university faculty/staff or students or high/middle school educators. RESULTS: A confirmatory factor analysis revealed the three-factor model based on the subscales of preparedness, likelihood, and self-efficacy fit the data best. Factor loadings showed all items correlated highly with theoretical constructs (r ≥ .84, p < .001). The GBS had high internal consistency (α = 0.93). Criterion-related validity for likelihood to discuss concerns at posttraining was significantly related to approaching students believed to be in psychological distress (r = .219, p < .001). Likelihood to refer significantly correlated with the number of students referred (r = .235, p < .001). Convergent validity was established via a correlation between self-efficacy in motivating someone to seek help and general self-efficacy (r = .519, p < .001). CONCLUSION: The GBS appears to be a valid tool in measuring the impact of online gatekeeper training simulations and holds promise for assessing other delivery methods.

Nurses experiences of working in Crisis Resolution Home Treatment Teams with its additional gatekeeping responsibilities.

INTRODUCTION: Through their gatekeeping role, CRHTT aim to reduce inappropriate admissions, facilitate early discharge from hospital and maximize the ability of service users to live independently within their own communities. It is evident that there is a vast array of literature on CRHTT internationally, however, little evidence on nurses experiences of working within CRHTT and gatekeeping. Therefore, in the light of limited research, this study aims to expand the current evidence base by exploring nurse's experiences of working in CRHTT with its additional gatekeeping responsibilities. METHODOLOGY: Six nurses working across two CRHTT's were interviewed using semi-structured interviews. Data were analysed through the use of thematic analysis. RESULTS: Four key themes emerged which were, 'CRHTT as a specialist role', 'core principles of the gatekeeping role', 'redefining risk management for gatekeepers in CRHTT' and 'the future of gatekeeping'. DISCUSSION: It is evident through nurse's experiences of working within CRHTT and gatekeeping that their roles were very dynamic and challenging. A positive risk-taking approach contributed towards the success of CRHTT as gatekeepers. Family members played a significant role in ensuring gatekeeping remained a priority consistent with Government targets. Clinical Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.

[Quality management in emergency departments: Lack of uniform standards for fact-based controlling]. / Qualitätsmanagement in der Notaufnahme: Fehlende einheitliche Standards zur kennzahlenbasierten Steuerung.

BACKGROUND: The general high occupancy of emergency departments during the winter months of 2014/2015 outlined deficits in health politics. Whether on the regional, province, or federal level, verifiable and accepted figures to enable in depth analysis and fact-based controlling of emergency care systems are lacking. OBJECTS: As the first step, reasons for the current situation are outlined in order to developed concrete recommendations for individual hospitals. METHODS: This work is based on a selective literature search with focus on quality management, ratio driven management, and process management within emergency departments as well as personal experience with implementation of a key ratio system in a German maximum care hospital. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The insufficient integration of emergencies into the DRG systematic, the role as gatekeeper between inpatient and outpatient care sector, the decentralized organization of emergency departments in many hospitals, and the inconsistent representation within the medical societies can be mentioned as reasons for the lack of key ratio systems. In addition to the important role within treatment procedures, emergency departments also have an immense economic importance. Consequently, the management of individual hospitals should promote implementation of key ratio systems to enable controlling of emergency care processes. Thereby the perspectives finance, employees, processes as well as partners and patients should be equally considered. Within the process perspective, milestones could be used to enable detailed controlling of treatment procedures. An implementation of key ratio systems without IT support is not feasible; thus, existing digital data should be used and future data analysis should already be considered during implementation of new IT systems.

The distortions of care needs and medical professionalism: The ruling practices of migrant labor policy in Taiwan.

According to Taiwanese government policies and regulations, families planning to hire migrant care workers must apply for a medical assessment of the needs of elderly people destined to be cared for. The physician conducting this assessment acts as a gatekeeper who carries out her/his work with state and medical profession authority to identify, define, and regulate older people's needs. Using institutional ethnography as the method of inquiry, this article locates the problematic nature of the medical assessment as an entry point to an inquiry into how the care needs met by migrant workers are textually-mediated. This article begins by telling the daily story of an old woman and her live-in migrant worker to point out the standpoint of care recipients and their families where the inquiry anchors. I examine the physicians' daily working activities of medical assessment to discover how policy subordinates people's interests to the governmental purpose.

El derecho de acceso sanitario en el contexto del Real Decreto-ley 16/2012: la perspectiva de organizaciones de la sociedad civil y asociaciones profesionales / Right of access to healthcare in the context of the Royal Decree-Law 16/2012: the perspective of civil society organizations and professional associations

Objetivo. La publicación del Real Decreto-ley 16/2012 (RDL 16/2012), que introduce cambios estructurales en el Sistema Sanitario Público Español, puede situarse en el contexto más amplio de políticas de ajuste en el momento actual de crisis económica. En el análisis de la interrelación de crisis económica, políticas sanitarias y salud, la participación ciudadana se nombra entre las potenciales estrategias para mitigar un impacto de la situación en la población. Desde esta valoración, se plantea el interés de un conocimiento de la perspectiva de la ciudadanía sobre las modificaciones introducidas por el RDL 16/2012. Métodos. Revisión narrativa de publicaciones de organizaciones de la sociedad civil y asociaciones profesionales relacionadas con el RDL 16/2012 en el contexto español. Resultados. Se observa una amplia respuesta ciudadana a la introducción del RDL 16/2012. Los documentos revisados incluyen un análisis del cambio del modelo sanitario inherente al RDL 16/2012, así como la previsión de su impacto en el acceso sanitario, la calidad asistencial y la salud. Las organizaciones de la sociedad civil y las asociaciones profesionales aportan recomendaciones y propuestas, además de ofrecer su colaboración en la elaboración de estrategias alternativas de ahorro. Conclusiones. La respuesta al RDL 16/2012 por parte de organizaciones de la sociedad civil y asociaciones profesionales indica el interés de fomentar canales de participación ciudadana para el desarrollo de políticas sanitarias basadas en el objetivo de mantener el carácter universal y la sostenibilidad del Sistema Sanitario Público Español en el momento actual de crisis económica y sistémica (AU)

Objective. The recent publication of the Royal Decree-Law 16/2012 (RDL 16/2012), which introduces structural changes in the Spanish Public Healthcare System, can be placed in the broader context of budgetary adjustments in response to the current economic crisis. An analysis of the interrelationships among economic crisis, healthcare policies, and health reveals that citizen participation is one of several potential strategies for reducing the impact of this situation on the population. This observation raises the interest to know the citizens’ perspectives on the modifications introduced by the RDL 16/2012. Methods. Narrative review of documents related to the RDL 16/2012 published by civil society organizations and professional associations in the Spanish context. Results. A broad citizen response can be observed to the introduction of RDL 16/2012. The documents reviewed include an analysis of changes in the healthcare model inherent to the RDL 16/2012, as well as predictions on its impact on access to healthcare, healthcare quality, and health. The civil society organizations and professional associations offer recommendations and proposals, as well as collaboration in elaborating alternative strategies to reduce costs. Conclusions. The response of civil society organizations and professional associations underscores the importance of strengthening citizen participation in the development of healthcare policies aimed at maintaining the universal character and sustainability of the Spanish Public Healthcare System in the current moment of economic and systemic crisis (AU)

Payment mechanism and GP self-selection: capitation versus fee for service.

This paper analyzes the consequences of allowing gatekeeping general practitioners (GPs) to select their payment mechanism. We model GPs' behavior under the most common payment schemes (capitation and fee for service) and when GPs can select one among them. Our analysis considers GP heterogeneity in terms of both ability and concern for their patients' health. We show that when the costs of wasteful referrals to costly specialized care are relatively high, fee for service payments are optimal to maximize the expected patients' health net of treatment costs. Conversely, when the losses associated with failed referrals of severely ill patients are relatively high, we show that either GPs' self-selection of a payment form or capitation is optimal. Last, we extend our analysis to endogenous effort and to competition among GPs. In both cases, we show that self-selection is never optimal.

Gatekeepers to home and community care services: the link between client characteristics and source of referral.

OBJECTIVES: To identify characteristics associated with the likelihood of a client receiving a referral to the Home and Community Care (HACC) program from various sources. METHODS: Data were collected from 73809 home care clients during 2007-08. Binary logistic and multinomial logistic regression were used to investigate the likelihood of a client being referred by health workers v. non-health workers. RESULTS: Females and clients cared for by their parents were less likely to receive referrals from health workers than non-health workers after confounding variables were controlled for. While poorer functional ability of clients increased the probability of receiving a referral from a health worker, the opposite was true for those with behavioural problems. Over 43% of the sample either self-referred or was referred by family or friends. CONCLUSIONS: Eligible individuals may miss out on services unless they or their family take the initiative to refer. There is a need for improved methods and incentives to support and encourage health workers to refer eligible individuals to the program. What is known about the topic? The absence or inappropriate referral to a suitable home care program can place pressure on formalised institutions and increase burdens on family members and the community. Factors largely unrelated to healthcare needs carry significant weight in determining hospital discharge decisions and home care referrals by practitioners. What does this paper add? The effectiveness of the HACC program is dependent on the referrer who acts to inform and facilitate individuals to the program. The purpose of this study is to identify the characteristics associated with the likelihood of individuals receiving a referral to the HACC program from various sources. What are the implications for practitioners? This study will assist policy makers and practitioners in developing effective strategies that transition individuals to suitable home care services in a timely manner. An effective referral process would provide opportunities for implementing preventative strategies that reduce disability rates among individuals and the burden of care for the community. For instance, individuals with unmet needs may be at higher risk from injury at home through inadequate monitoring of nutrient and medication intake and inappropriate home surroundings. Improving knowledge about care options and providing appropriate incentives that encourage health workers to refer individuals would be an effective start in improving the health outcomes of an ageing population.

Slaying the dragon myth: an ethnographic study of receptionists in UK general practice.

BACKGROUND: General practice receptionists fulfil an essential role in UK primary care, shaping patient access to health professionals. They are often portrayed as powerful 'gatekeepers'. Existing literature and management initiatives advocate more training to improve their performance and, consequently, the patient experience. AIM: To explore the complexity of the role of general practice receptionists by considering the wider practice context in which they work. DESIGN AND SETTING: Ethnographic observation in seven urban general practices in the north-west of England. METHOD: Seven researchers conducted 200 hours of ethnographic observation, predominantly in the reception areas of each practice. Forty-five receptionists were involved in the study and were asked about their work as they carried out their activities. Observational notes were taken. Analysis involved ascribing codes to incidents considered relevant to the role and organising these into related clusters. RESULTS: Receptionists were faced with the difficult task of prioritising patients, despite having little time, information, and training. They felt responsible for protecting those patients who were most vulnerable, however this was sometimes made difficult by protocols set by the GPs and by patients trying to 'play' the system. CONCLUSION: Framing the receptionist-patient encounter as one between the 'powerful' and the 'vulnerable' gets in the way of fully understanding the complex tasks receptionists perform and the contradictions that are inherent in their role. Calls for more training, without reflective attention to practice dynamics, risk failing to address systemic problems, portraying them instead as individual failings.

Gatekeeping and referrals to cardiologists: general practitioners' views on interactive communications.

OBJECTIVE: Referrals to specialists have not been compulsory in Iceland since 1984. In 2006, referrals were again required for patients to receive reimbursement for part of the cost of appointments with cardiologists. The aim of this study was to explore GPs' attitudes to the referral system and possible professional gain by interactive communications. DESIGN: Cross-sectional questionnaire survey. SETTING, SUBJECTS, AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: This is part of a larger study in 2007 on referrals from GPs to cardiologists. A questionnaire was sent to all working GPs in Iceland (n = 201 and responsible for 307 000 inhabitants) regarding the referral process, reasons for referrals, how often a response letter was received, and GPs' attitudes to the referral system. Responses from doctors working in rural areas were compared with those working in Reykjavik and nearby urban areas. RESULTS: The response rate was 63% (126 answers). The mean age of participants was 51; 89% were GP specialists and 60% worked in Reykjavik and nearby urban areas. Almost all respondents (98%) thought that report letters from cardiologists were helpful; 64% (95% confidence interval 53-73) thought that the recently introduced referral system did increase useful information that was beneficial to their patients. There was a statistically significant difference between colleagues working in rural areas and those working in Reykjavik and nearby urban areas regarding several aspects of the referral process. CONCLUSION: A referral system increases the flow of information and mutual communications between general practitioners and specialists to the benefit of the patients. The geographical location of the health care centre may be of importance regarding the value of the referrals.

Mille general practice governance (MilleGPG): an interactive tool to address an effective quality of care through the Italian general practice network.

The General Practitioner (GP) is the "gate-keeper" in patients' treatment and management. Herein, the use of Electronic Medical Records (EMR) could represent an effective support for GPs. Software capable of managing EMRs are available and they can be functional in adopting treatment guidelines by means of computerized prompts and reminders systems. These tools can be also programmed to include clinical algorithms with which to measure the quality of care to make possible the identification of clinical issues, and to take actions for addressing them. Given that similar tools were not available in Italy, we developed MilleGPG, an interactive tool aimed to evaluate, and subsequently improve the quality of care among patients with comorbidities.

Law, bioethics and practice in France: forging a new legislative pact.

In France, bioethics norms have emerged in close interaction with medical practices. The first bioethics laws were adopted in 1994, with provisions for updates in 2004 and most recently, in 2011. As in other countries, bioethics laws indirectly refer to certain fundamental values. The purpose of this paper is threefold. First, I shall briefly describe the construction of the French bioethics laws and the values they are meant to protect. Secondly, I will show that the practice of clinical ethics, as reported in a few studies on ART, living organ donation and PGD, challenge the role attributed to doctors as "gatekeepers" of those fundamental values. Thirdly, I will suggest that the quality of medical practices would improve if the law focused on strengthening the tacit pact between doctors and patients, rather than putting doctors in charge of enforcing societal values. Doctors, for their part, would limit their role to what they can do best: provide sufficient patient support and safe care. Against those who argue that we should dispense with bioethics laws altogether, I hold that the laws are useful in order to limit the development of abusive practices. However, a new legislative approach should be adopted which would a positive presumption in favor of patients' requests.

Application of "less is more" to low back pain.

An initiative of the National Physicians Alliance, the project titled "Promoting Good Stewardship in Clinical Practice," developed a list of the top 5 activities in primary care for which changes in practice could lead to higher-quality care and better use of finite clinical resources. One of the top 5 recommendations was "Don't do imaging for low back pain within the first 6 weeks unless red flags are present." This article presents data that support this recommendation. We selectively reviewed the literature, including recent reviews, guidelines, and commentaries, on the benefits and risks of routine imaging in low back pain. In particular, we searched PubMed for systematic reviews or meta-analyses published in the past 5 years. We also assessed the cost of spine imaging using data from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey. One high-quality systematic review and meta-analysis focused on clinical outcomes in patients with low back pain and found no clinically significant difference in pain or function between those who received immediate lumbar spine imaging vs usual care. Published data also document harms associated with early imaging for low back pain, including patient "labeling," unneeded follow-up tests for incidental findings, irradiation exposure, unnecessary surgery, and significant cost. Routine imaging should not be pursued in acute low back pain. Not imaging patients with acute low back pain will reduce harms and costs, without affecting clinical outcomes.

Community learning disability teams: developments, composition and good practice: a review of the literature.

This article presents the findings from a literature review related to community learning disability teams (CLDTs). Much of the existing literature on CLDTs is inspirational, theoretical or opinion based rather than evidence based. It was considered that current knowledge is insufficient to allow a systematic review; therefore a structured review of factors that impact on CLDTs was undertaken following some of the principles of a systematic review. The review covers historical and philosophical influences on the development of CLDTs; the structure and common composition of CLDTs; the main challenges facing CLDTs; and the barriers that impact on their effective working. Based on the available evidence a number of good practice suggestions are forwarded that have the potential to enhance the work undertaken by CLDTs, but it is acknowledged that there is a need for more research into the effectiveness of these teams.

[Prior authorisation to visit the neurologist from primary care may not be necessary: the findings of a prospective, controlled study]. / La autorización previa para acceder al neurólogo desde atención primaria puede ser innecesaria: resultados de un estudio prospectivo y controlado.

INTRODUCTION: The system by which approval must be given by the primary care physician before a patient can visit a specialist is known as gatekeeping and is aimed at preventing the mistaken or simple referral of patients to the next stage of health care services. We present a study that compares the final diagnoses of 400 patients who used a direct access model of referral (DAM) with those of 400 patients referred by a primary care physician in a prior authorisation model (PAM). PATIENTS AND METHODS: We conducted a prospective analysis of two cohorts of patients who visited the same neurologist in a PAM system versus a DAM system. The 800 patients were evaluated following similar diagnostic criteria. The primary objective of the study was to compare the patients who were referred with a final diagnosis of 'non-neurological pathology' in the PAM and the DAM systems. Secondary aims consisted in conducting an analysis of the diagnoses by different pathologies between the two models. RESULTS: No significant differences were found between the referrals that were considered to be non-neurological in the PAM and the DAM systems (27.0% versus 26.3%; p = 0.48). A logistic regression model was performed with 'non-neurological pathology' as the dependent variable and age, sex and type of model (PAM or DAM) as the independent variables, similar results being obtained in both cases. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that the role played by the primary care physician is not effective when it comes to preventing mistaken referrals to the neurologist in our area. A populational study would be needed to evaluate the rate at which resources are used and the spending on health care in the two models.