Heat stroke burden and validity of wearable-derived core temperature estimation during elite military training.

OBJECTIVES: Exertional heat stroke (EHS) remains a significant health concern while training in hot environments, prompting the development of noninvasive wearable technology for monitoring estimated core temperature (ECT). The objective of this study was to review the effectiveness of an ECT device during elite military training by providing a case series of individuals who developed EHS. METHODS: This is a retrospective study of EHS cases during high-intensity training while wearing the ECT device, Zephyr BioharnessTM. Data was collected from January 2021 through September 2021 at the Air Force Special Warfare Training pipeline in San Antonio, TX. Rectal temperatures of EHS diagnoses, defined by central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction and rectal temperature approaching or >40°C (104°F), were compared to ECT reading via Zephyr BioharnessTM. Incidence rates and psychometric properties were calculated using R package. RESULTS: A total of 47,058 daily peak ECT measurements were collected among 1,364 trainees. A total of 499 trainees flagged as potential EHS by Zephyr BioharnessTM reading >39.7°C (103.5°F). The incidence of confirmed EHS was 0.8/1000 person-months. Of the 10 confirmed EHS cases (9 males, 1 female; age = 23.4 ± 2.7 yrs; BMI = 25 ± 2; body fat = 13 ± 5%), 8 trainees had a peak ECT reading below 39.7°C which resulted in a sensitivity of 20%, specificity of 98.9%, positive likelihood ratio (LR) of 18.93 (95% Confidence Interval [CI] 5.5-65.6), and a negative LR of 0.81 (95% CI 0.6-1.1). CONCLUSION: ECT had substantial false positive and negative rates. Further studies are needed to validate this technology in other populations, and the algorithm used in this device needs to be refined to better capture the environmental and physical requirements in the special operations population.

Exertional Heat Stroke Survival at the Falmouth Road Race: 180 New Cases With Expanded Analysis.

CONTEXT: A high number of exertional heat stroke (EHS) cases occur during the Falmouth Road Race. OBJECTIVES: To extend previous analyses of EHS cases during the Falmouth Road Race by assessing or describing (1) EHS and heat exhaustion (HE) incidence rates, (2) EHS outcomes as they relate to survival, (3) the effect of the environment on these outcomes, and (4) how this influences medical provider planning and preparedness. DESIGN: Descriptive epidemiologic study. SETTING: Falmouth Road Race. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Patients with EHS or HE admitted to the medical tent. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): We obtained 8 years (2012 to 2019) of Falmouth Road Race anonymous EHS and HE medical records. Meteorologic data were collected and analyzed to evaluate the effect of environmental conditions on the heat illness incidence (exertional heat illness [EHI] = EHS + HE). The EHS treatment and outcomes (ie, cooling time, survival, and discharge outcome), number of HE patients, and wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) for each race were analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 180 EHS and 239 HE cases were identified. Overall incidence rates per 1000 participants were 2.07 for EHS and 2.76 for HE. The EHI incidence rate was 4.83 per 1000 participants. Of the 180 EHS cases, 100% survived, and 20% were transported to the emergency department. The WBGT was strongly correlated with the incidence of both EHS (r2 = 0.904, P = .026) and EHI (r2 = 0.912, P = .023). CONCLUSIONS: This is the second-largest civilian database of EHS cases reported. When combined with the previous dataset of EHS survivors from this race, it amounts to 454 EHS cases resulting in 100% survival. The WBGT remained a strong predictor of EHS and EHI cases. These findings support 100% survival from EHS when patients over a wide range of ages and sexes are treated with cold-water immersion.

Possible adaptation measures for climate change in preventing heatstroke among older adults in Japan.

Introduction: Heatstroke mortality is highest among older adults aged 65 years and older, and the risk is even doubled among those aged 75 years and older. The incidence of heatstroke is expected to increase in the future with elevated temperatures owing to climate change. In the context of a super-aged society, we examined possible adaptation measures in Japan that could prevent heatstroke among older people using an epidemiological survey combined with mathematical modeling. Methods: To identify possible interventions, we conducted a cross-sectional survey, collecting information on heatstroke episodes from 2018 to 2019 among people aged 75 years and older. Responses were analyzed from 576 participants, and propensity score matching was used to adjust for measurable confounders and used to estimate the effect sizes associated with variables that constitute possible interventions. Subsequently, a weather-driven statistical model was used to predict heatstroke-related ambulance transports. We projected the incidence of heatstroke-related transports until the year 2100, with and without adaptation measures. Results: The risk factor with the greatest odds ratio (OR) of heatstroke among older adults was living alone (OR 2.5, 95% confidence interval: 1.2-5.4). Other possible risk factors included an inability to drink water independently and the absence of air conditioning. Using three climate change scenarios, a more than 30% increase in the incidence of heatstroke-related ambulance transports was anticipated for representative concentration pathways (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5, as compared with a carbon-neutral scenario. Given 30% reduction in single living, a 15% reduction in the incidence of heatstroke is expected. Given 70% improvement in all three risk factors, a 40% reduction in the incidence can be expected. Conclusion: Possible adaptation measures include providing support for older adults living alone, for those who have an inability to drink water and for those without air conditioning. To be comparable to carbon neutrality, future climate change under RCP 2.6 requires achieving a 30% relative reduction in all three identified risks at least from 2060; under RCP 4.5, a 70% reduction from 2050 at the latest is needed. In the case of RCP 8.5, the goal of heatstroke-related transports approaching RCP 1.9 cannot be achieved.

[Heat illness]. / Hitteziekte.

Thermoregulation keeps the normal body temperature of humans at approximately 37 °C. However, as a result of heat load - both endogenous and exogenous heat - it can occur that the body is unable to dissipate excess heat, leading to an increase in the core body temperature. This can result in various heat illnesses, ranging from mild, non-life-threatening conditions, such as heat rash, heat edema, heat cramps, heat syncope and exercise associated collapse to life-threatening conditions, namely exertional heatstroke and classic heatstroke. Exertional heatstroke is the result of strenuous exercise in a (relatively) hot environment, whereas classic heatstroke is caused by environmental heat. Both forms result in a core temperature of > 40 °C in combination with a lowered or altered consciousness. Early recognition and treatment are critical in reducing morbidity and mortality. Cornerstone of treatment is cooling.

Prediction of climate change impacts on heatstroke cases in Japan's 47 prefectures with the effect of long-term heat adaptation.

One of the negative consequences of increased air temperatures due to global warming is the associated increase in heat-related mortality and morbidity. Studies that focused on future predictions of heat-related morbidity do not consider the effect of long-term heat adaptation measures, nor do they use evidence-based methods. Therefore, this study aimed to predict the future heatstroke cases for all 47 prefectures of Japan, by considering long-term heat adaptation by translating current geographical differences in heat adaptation to future temporal heat adaptation. Predictions were conducted for age groups of 7-17, 18-64, and ≥65 years. The prediction period was set to a base period (1981-2000), mid-21st century (2031-2050), and the end of the 21st century (2081-2100). We found that the average heatstroke incidence (number of patients with heatstroke transported by ambulance per population) in Japan under five representative climate models and three greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions scenarios increased by 2.92- for 7-17 years, 3.66- for 18-64 years, and 3.26-fold for ≥65 years at the end of the 21st century without heat adaptation. The corresponding numbers were 1.57 for 7-17 years, 1.77 for 18-64 years, and 1.69 for ≥65 years with heat adaptation. Furthermore, the average number of patients with heatstroke transported by ambulance (NPHTA) under all climate models and GHG emissions scenarios increased by 1.02- for 7-17 years, 1.76- for 18-64 years, and 5.50-fold for ≥65 years at the end of 21st century without heat adaptation, where demographic changes were considered. The corresponding numbers were 0.55 for 7-17 years, 0.82 for 18-64 years, and 2.74 for ≥65 years with heat adaptation. The heatstroke incidence, as well as the NPHTA, substantially decreased when heat adaptation was considered. Our method could be applicable to other regions across the globe.

Myocardial structure and functional alterations in a preclinical model of exertional heat stroke.

AIM: Relatively little information is available about the effect of an acute exertional heat stroke (EHS) on myocardium structure and function. Herein, we used a survival male rat model of EHS to answer the question. MAIN METHODS: Adult male Wistar rats underwent forced treadmill running at a 36 °C room temperature and 50 % relative humidity until EHS onset, characterized by hyperthermia and collapse. All rats that were followed for 14 days survived. Injury severity scores of both gastrocnemius and myocardium were determined histologically. Following an EHS event, pathological echocardiography, skeletal muscle and myocardial damage scores and indicators, myocardial fibrosis, hypertrophy, and autophagy were elucidated. KEY FINDINGS: Rats with EHS onset displayed skeletal muscle damage, elevated serum levels of skeletal muscle damage indicators (e.g., creatinine kinase, myoglobin, and potassium), and myocardial injury indicators (e.g., cardiac troponin I, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase) returning to homeostasis within 3 days post-EHS. However, EHS-induced myocardial damage, pathological echocardiography, myocardial fibrosis, hypertrophy, and deposited misfolded proteins lasted up to 14 days post-EHS at least. SIGNIFICANCE: First, we provide evidence to confirm that despite the apparent return to homeostasis, underlying processes may still be ongoing after EHS onset. Second, we provide several key findings emphasizing the pathophysiology and risk factors of EHS, highlighting gaps in knowledge with the aim of stimulating future studies.

Potential effect of heat adaptation on association between number of heatstroke patients transported by ambulance and wet bulb globe temperature in Japan.

This study analyzed the association between heatstroke incidence and daily maximum wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) for all 47 prefectures in Japan by age group and severity using time-series analysis, controlling for confounders, such as seasonality and long-term trends. With the obtained association, the relative risk between the reference WBGT (defined as the value at which heatstroke starts to increase) and the daily maximum WBGT at 30 °C (RRwbgt30) of each prefecture were calculated. For the heatstroke data, the daily number of heatstroke patients transported by ambulance at the prefecture level, provided by the Fire and Disaster Management Agency, was utilized. The analysis was conducted for age groups of 7-17 y, 18-64 y, and ≥65 y, and for severity of Deceased, Severe, Moderate (combined as DSM), and Mild. The analysis period was set from May 1 to September 30, 2015-2019. Finally, the correlation between RRwbgt30 and the average daily maximum WBGT during the analysis period (aveWBGTms) of each prefecture was analyzed to examine the regionality of heatstroke incidence. The result showed that RRwbgt30 is negatively correlated with aveWBGTms for the age group 18-64 y and ≥65 y (except for the age group 7-17 y) and for severity. The natural logarithm of the RRwbgt30 of all 47 prefectures ranged from 2.0 to 8.2 for the age group 7-17 y, 1.1 to 4.0 for the age group 18-64 y, 1.8 to 6.0 for the age group ≥65 y, and 1.0 to 3.6 for DSM, and 0.9 to 4.0 for Mild. This regionality can be attributed to the effects of heat adaptation, where people in hotter regions are accustomed to implementing measures against hot environments and are more heat acclimatized than people in cooler regions.

Proper Recognition and Management of Exertional Heat Stroke in a High School Cross-Country Runner: A Validation Clinical Case Report.

A 14-year-old female high school cross- country runner (height = 154 cm, mass = 48.1 kg) with no history of exertional heat stroke (EHS) collapsed at the end of a race. An athletic trainer assessed the patient, who presented with difficulty breathing and then other signs of EHS (eg, confusion and agitation). The patient was taken to the medical area and draped with a towel, and a rectal temperature (Tre) of 106.9°F (41.6°C) was obtained. The emergency action plan was activated, and emergency medical services was called. The patient was submerged in a cold-water immersion tub until emergency medical services arrived (∼15 minutes; Tre = 100.1°F; cooling rate: 0.41°F.min-1[0.25°C.min-1]). At the hospital, the patient received intravenous fluids, and urine and blood tests were normal. She was not admitted and returned to running without sequelae. Following best practices, secondary school athletic trainers can prevent deaths from EHS by properly recognizing the condition and providing rapid cooling before transport.

High-Fat Diet Impairs Muscle Function and Increases the Risk of Environmental Heatstroke in Mice.

Environmental heat-stroke (HS) is a life-threatening response often triggered by hot and humid weather. Several lines of evidence indicate that HS is caused by excessive heat production in skeletal muscle, which in turn is the result of abnormal Ca2+ leak from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and excessive production of oxidative species of oxygen and nitrogen. As a high fat diet is known to increase oxidative stress, the objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of 3 months of high-fat diet (HFD) on the HS susceptibility of wild type (WT) mice. HS susceptibility was tested in an environmental chamber where 4 months old WT mice were exposed to heat stress (41 °C for 1 h). In comparison with mice fed with a regular diet, mice fed with HFD showed: (a) increased body weight and accumulation of adipose tissue; (b) elevated oxidative stress in skeletal muscles; (c) increased heat generation and oxygen consumption during exposure to heat stress; and finally, (d) enhanced sensitivity to both temperature and caffeine of isolated muscles during in-vitro contracture test. These data (a) suggest that HFD predisposes WT mice to heat stress and (b) could have implications for guidelines regarding food intake during periods of intense environmental heat.

Heat health risk assessment analysing heatstroke patients in Fukuoka City, Japan.

BACKGROUND: Climate change, as a defining issue of the current time, is causing severe heat-related illness in the context of extremely hot weather conditions. In Japan, the remarkable temperature increase in summer caused by an urban heat island and climate change has become a threat to public health in recent years. METHODS: This study aimed to determine the potential risk factors for heatstroke by analysing data extracted from the records of emergency transport to the hospital due to heatstroke in Fukuoka City, Japan. In this regard, a negative binomial regression model was used to account for overdispersion in the data. Age-structure analyses of heatstroke patients were also embodied to identify the sub-population of Fukuoka City with the highest susceptibility. RESULTS: The daily maximum temperature and wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT), along with differences in both the mean temperature and time-weighted temperature from those of the consecutive past days were detected as significant risk factors for heatstroke. Results indicated that there was a positive association between the resulting risk factors and the probability of heatstroke occurrence. The elderly of Fukuoka City aged 70 years or older were found to be the most vulnerable to heatstroke. Most of the aforementioned risk factors also encountered significant and positive associations with the risk of heatstroke occurrence for the group with highest susceptibility. CONCLUSION: These results can provide insights for health professionals and stakeholders in designing their strategies to reduce heatstroke patients and to secure the emergency transport systems in summer.

The Role of Skeletal Muscles in Exertional Heat Stroke Pathophysiology.

The active participation of skeletal muscles is a unique characteristic of exertional heat stroke. Nevertheless, the only well-documented link between skeletal muscle activities and exertional heat stroke pathophysiology is the extensive muscle damage (e. g., rhabdomyolysis) and subsequent leakage of intramuscular content into the circulation of exertional heat stroke victims. Here, we will present and discuss rarely explored roles of skeletal muscles in the context of exertional heat stroke pathophysiology and recovery. This includes an overview of heat production that contributes to severe hyperthermia and the synthesis and secretion of bioactive molecules, such as cytokines, chemokines and acute phase proteins. These molecules can alter the overall inflammatory status from pro- to anti-inflammatory, affecting other organ systems and influencing recovery. The activation of innate immunity can determine whether a victim is ready to return to physical activity or experiences a prolonged convalescence. We also provide a brief discussion on whether heat acclimation can shift skeletal muscle secretory phenotype to prevent or aid recovery from exertional heat stroke. We conclude that skeletal muscles should be considered as a key organ system in exertional heat stroke pathophysiology.

The Effect of Minimum and Maximum Air Temperatures in the Summer on Heat Stroke in Japan: A Time-Stratified Case-Crossover Study.

An increase in the global surface temperature and changes in urban morphologies are associated with increased heat stress especially in urban areas. This can be one of the contributing factors underlying an increase in heat strokes. We examined the impact of summer minimum air temperatures, which often represent nighttime temperatures, as well as a maximum temperature on a heat stroke. We collected data from the records of daily ambulance transports for heat strokes and meteorological data for July and August of 2017-2019 in the Tottori Prefecture, Japan. A time-stratified case-crossover design was used to determine the association of maximum/minimum air temperatures and the incidence of heat strokes. We used a logistic regression to identify factors associated with the severity of heat strokes. A total of 1108 cases were identified with 373 (33.7%) calls originating in the home (of these, 59.8% were the age of ≥ 75). A total of 65.8% of cases under the age of 18 were related to exercise. Days with a minimum temperature ≥ 25 °C had an odds ratio (95% confidence interval) of 3.77 (2.19, 6.51) for the incidence of an exercise-related heat stroke (reference: days with a minimum temperature < 23 °C). The odds ratio for a heat stroke occurring at home or for calls for an ambulance to the home was 6.75 (4.47, 10.20). The severity of the heat stroke was associated with older age but not with air temperature. Minimum and maximum air temperatures may be associated with the incidence of heat strokes and in particular the former with non-exertional heat strokes.

Age- and Sex-Based Differences in Exertional Heat Stroke Incidence in a 7-Mile Road Race.

CONTEXT: Sex, age, and wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) have been proposed risk factors for exertional heat stroke (EHS) despite conflicting laboratory and epidemiologic evidence. OBJECTIVE: To examine differences in EHS incidence while accounting for sex, age, and environmental conditions. DESIGN: Observational study. SETTING: Falmouth Road Race, a warm-weather 7-mi (11.26-km) running road race. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: We reviewed records from patients treated for EHS at medical tents. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): The relative risk (RR) of EHS between sexes and across ages was assessed with males as the reference population. Multivariate linear regression analyses were calculated to determine the relative contribution of sex, age, and WBGT to the incidence of EHS. RESULTS: Among 343 EHS cases, the female risk of EHS was lower overall (RR = 0.71; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.58, 0.89; P = .002) and for age groups 40 to 49 years (RR = 0.43; 95% CI = 0.24, 0.77; P = .005) and 50 to 59 years (RR = 0.31; 95% CI = 0.13, 0.72; P = .005). The incidence of EHS did not differ between sexes in relation to WBGT (P > .05). When sex, age, and WBGT were considered in combination, only age groups <14 years (ß = 2.41, P = .008), 15 to 18 years (ß = 3.83, P < .001), and 19 to 39 years (ß = 2.24, P = .014) significantly accounted for the variance in the incidence of EHS (R2 = .10, P = .006). CONCLUSIONS: In this unique investigation of EHS incidence in a road race, we found a 29% decreased EHS risk in females compared with males. However, when sex was considered with age and WBGT, only younger age accounted for an increased incidence of EHS. These results suggest that road race medical organizers should consider participant demographics when organizing the personnel and resources needed to treat patients with EHS. Specifically, organizers of events with greater numbers of young runners (aged 19 to 39 years) and males should prioritize ensuring that medical personnel are adequately prepared to handle patients with EHS.

[Exertional heat stroke in athletes and soldiers]. / Inspanningsgebonden hitteberoerte bij sporters en militairen.

Exertional heat stroke (EHS) is a medical emergency characterized by life-threatening hyperthermia and central nerve system dysfunction during or directly after exercise. Early recognition and aggressive cooling reduces morbidity and mortality of patients with EHS. Therefore, all health care professionals involved in acute care should immediately recognise EHS and start cooling with cold water immersion as soon as possible. Most EHS occur in young and healthy individuals without a medical history, such as athletes or soldiers. We report the case of EHS in a 26-year-old man without a medical history. He suffered from EHS during a military admission test. A few years later he had a second EHS during military training. This time, the EHS was complicated by compartment syndrome, rhabdomyolysis, acute kidney injury and epilepsy. He fully recovered from both EHS episodes. Muscle histology, whole exome sequencing and heat tolerance tests did not show any abnormalities.

[Heat stroke on the hottest day of the year]. / Een hitteberoerte op de warmste dag van het jaar.

Heat stroke is the most extreme form of heat-related illness. An imbalance between excessive body heat production and inadequate compensatory mechanisms can lead to multi-organ failure and even death. There are two types of heat stroke: exertional heat stroke and non-exertional (a.k.a. classical) heat stroke. In exertional heat stroke, extreme physical activity leads to overheating of the body, whereas classical heat stroke is usually caused by a hot environment without adequate thermoregulation. We present a case of classical heat stroke in an elderly patient. Since we are faced with an aging population in combination with an increase in heat waves as a consequence of climate change, increasing numbers of elderly people are expected to be at risk of heat stroke. Prevention and effective cooling by first responders are crucial for a better prognosis.

Systematic review of gender differences in the epidemiology and risk factors of exertional heat illness and heat tolerance in the armed forces.

OBJECTIVES: This review aimed to describe the epidemiology of all heat-related illnesses in women compared with men in the armed forces and to identify gender-specific risk factors and differences in heat tolerance. DESIGN: A systematic review of multiple databases (MEDLINE, Emcare, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Informit and Scopus) was conducted from the inception of the databases to 1 April 2019 using the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis guidelines. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: All relevant studies investigating and comparing heat illness and heat tolerance in women and men in the armed forces were included in the review. RESULTS: Twenty-four studies were included in the systematic review. The incidence of heat stroke in women ranged from 0.10 to 0.26 per 1000 person-years, while the incidence of heat stroke ranged from 0.22 to 0.48 per 1000 person-years in men. The incidence of other heat illnesses in women compared with men ranged from 1.30 to 2.89 per 1000 person-years versus 0.98 to 1.98 per 1000 person-years. The limited evidence suggests that women had a greater risk of exertional heat illness compared with men. Other gender-specific risk factors were slower run times and body mass index. Although there was a higher proportion of women who were heat intolerant compared with men, this finding needs to be interpreted with caution due to the limited evidence. CONCLUSION: The findings of this review suggest that men experienced a slightly higher incidence of heat stroke than women in the armed forces. In addition, the limited available evidence suggests that a higher proportion of women were heat intolerant and being a female was associated with a greater risk of exertional heat illnesses. Given the limited evidence available, further research is required to investigate the influence of gender differences on heat intolerance and heat illness.

[Forgotten Baby Syndrome: dimensions of the phenomenon and new research perspectives]. / Bambini dimenticati in auto: dimensioni del fenomeno e nuove prospettive di ricerca.

Forgotten Baby Syndrome (FBS) defines the phenomenon of forgetting a child in a parked vehicle. FBS is in constant growth with significant repercussions for the parent, the family and society. Scientific research on the topic is very limited. Literature referring to FBS focuses mostly on the clinical conditions that cause the death of the children involved. However, the circumstances in which such episodes occur are very rarely analyzed. One of the major limit of research in this field is related to the sources of information, which are limited to media in most cases and, therefore, are scarcely reliable. Monitoring the phenomenon in the United States showed that out of a total of 171 cases, 73% concerned children who had been left in the car by an adult. Half of the adults were unaware, or had forgotten the child. In most cases, these episodes involve adults who have perfectly intact both psychic and cognitive functions. Therefore, the dynamics underling the occurrence of such episodes seem to be incomprehensible. At the end of the analysis carried out it can be considered that the cases of death of minors following abandonment in vehicles, are to be considered connected to the normal functioning of the Working Memory (WM) functionality. The link between WM deficits and frankly psychopathological conditions remains residual and it still requires careful differential screening. Finally, the hypothesis of the occurrence of transient and/or acute circumstances of exogenous origin, which may affect WM's performance, remains to be considered. Considering these deaths as events that, in most cases, are of criminal relevance they may require the intervention of psychologists and psychiatrists during the process. In this prospective the assumption of a broader point of view can have a significant impact on the descriptive capacity in clinical-forensic field.

Effects of Ibuprofen during Exertional Heat Stroke in Mice.

Intestinal injury is one of the most prominent features of organ damage in exertional heat stroke (EHS). However, whether damage to the intestine in this setting is exacerbated by ibuprofen (IBU), the most commonly used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug in exercising populations, is not well understood. PURPOSE: We hypothesized that IBU would exacerbate intestinal injury, reduce exercise performance, and increase susceptibility to heat stroke. METHODS: To test this hypothesis, we administered IBU via diet to male and female C57/BL6J mice, over 48 h before EHS. Susceptibility to EHS was determined by assessing exercise response using a forced running wheel, housed inside an environmental chamber at 37.5°C. Core temperature (Tc) was monitored by telemetry. Mice were allocated into four groups: exercise only (EXC); EHS + IBU; EXC + IBU; and EHS only. Exercise performance and Tc profiles were evaluated and stomachs, intestines and plasma were collected at 3 h post-EHS. RESULTS: The EHS + IBU males ran approximately 87% longer when Tc was above 41°C (P < 0.03) and attained significantly higher peak Tc (P < 0.01) than EHS-only mice. Histological analyses showed decreased villi surface area throughout the small intestine for both sexes in the EXC + IBU group versus EXC only. Interestingly, though EHS in both sexes caused intestinal injury, in neither sex were there any additional effects of IBU. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that in a preclinical mouse model of EHS, oral IBU at pharmacologically effective doses does not pose additional risks of heat stroke, does not reduce exercise performance, and does not contribute further to intestinal injury, though this could have been masked by significant gut injury induced by EHS alone.

Exertion-Related Illness: The Critical Roles of Leadership and Followership.

Exertion-related illness (ERI), despite aggressive efforts with both prevention and emergency action planning, continues to be a considerable threat to both athletes and warfighters. Numerous case reports and series have served to elucidate risk factors, which have in turn become the focus of prevention strategies. While this approach has assisted in mitigating athlete risk, recent institutional guidance has identified the need for greater protection of athletes by accountability of training programs and the recognition of periods of distinct athlete vulnerability. These recommendations, in addition to observations from lessons learned from the aforementioned cluster reports of ERI, have a strong call-out for the role of leadership as both a culprit for injury and a potential mechanism for prevention. This commentary introduces a leader-follower framework and explores this model in the evolution of ERI and offers recommendations as to how we move forward toward making progress in prevention.