Mexican Biobank advances population and medical genomics of diverse ancestries.

Latin America continues to be severely underrepresented in genomics research, and fine-scale genetic histories and complex trait architectures remain hidden owing to insufficient data1. To fill this gap, the Mexican Biobank project genotyped 6,057 individuals from 898 rural and urban localities across all 32 states in Mexico at a resolution of 1.8 million genome-wide markers with linked complex trait and disease information creating a valuable nationwide genotype-phenotype database. Here, using ancestry deconvolution and inference of identity-by-descent segments, we inferred ancestral population sizes across Mesoamerican regions over time, unravelling Indigenous, colonial and postcolonial demographic dynamics2-6. We observed variation in runs of homozygosity among genomic regions with different ancestries reflecting distinct demographic histories and, in turn, different distributions of rare deleterious variants. We conducted genome-wide association studies (GWAS) for 22 complex traits and found that several traits are better predicted using the Mexican Biobank GWAS compared to the UK Biobank GWAS7,8. We identified genetic and environmental factors associating with trait variation, such as the length of the genome in runs of homozygosity as a predictor for body mass index, triglycerides, glucose and height. This study provides insights into the genetic histories of individuals in Mexico and dissects their complex trait architectures, both crucial for making precision and preventive medicine initiatives accessible worldwide.

Differences in outcomes after emergency general surgery between Hispanic subgroups in the New Jersey State Inpatient Database (2009-2014): The Hispanic population is not monolithic.

BACKGROUND: Our aim was to examine differences in clinical outcomes between Hispanic subgroups who underwent emergency general surgery (EGS). METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of the HCUP State Inpatient Database from New Jersey (2009-2014), including Hispanic and non-Hispanic White (NHW) adult patients who underwent EGS. Multivariable analyses were performed on outcomes including 7-day readmission and length of stay (LOS). RESULTS: 125,874 patients underwent EGS operations. 22,971 were Hispanic (15,488 with subgroup defined: 7,331 - Central/South American; 4,254 - Puerto Rican; 3,170 - Mexican; 733 - Cuban). On multivariable analysis, patients in the Central/South American subgroup were more likely to be readmitted compared to the Mexican subgroup (OR 2.02; p < 0.001, respectively). Puerto Rican and Central/South American subgroups had significantly shorter LOS than Mexican patients (Puerto Rico -0.58 days; p < 0.001; Central/South American -0.30 days; p = 0.016). CONCLUSIONS: There are significant differences in EGS outcomes between Hispanic subgroups. These differences could be missed when data are aggregated at Hispanic ethnicity.

Investigating the Impact of Using an Alternate Classification Method for Race and Hispanic Ethnicity on Rates of Reported Gonorrhea.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to examine how the classification of gonorrhea cases by race and Hispanic ethnicity (HE) affects the measurement of racial/HE disparities in the rates of reported gonorrhea. METHODS: We examined gonorrhea cases reported through the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2017, and assigned race and HE using (1) "current classification," where cases with HE are classified as Hispanic regardless of race (e.g., Hispanic, non-Hispanic White, and non-Hispanic Black), and 2) "alternate classification," which separates each race category by HE (e.g., Hispanic White and non-Hispanic White). We estimated annual gonorrhea rates during 2010 to 2017 by race/HE category and calculated disparity measures (index of disparity, population-attributable proportion, and Gini coefficient) for gonorrhea rates under each classification strategy. RESULTS: All disparity measures revealed decreases in racial/HE disparities in the rates of reported gonorrhea during 2010 to 2017, regardless of classification strategy; however, the magnitude of the disparity and the percent change in the disparity over time varied across disparity measures. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding how classification of race/HE affects observed disparities is critical when monitoring interventions to reduce disparities and improve health equity.

Exploring Factors Associated with Physical Activity in Latino Immigrants.

Latinos are at increased risk for developing chronic conditions. Regular physical activity (PA) assists in protecting adults from developing type 2 diabetes, excess weight, and heart disease, making PA important for health promotion. This cross-sectional, descriptive investigation was conducted with adults 18 years of age and older in a predominately Latino community. Perceptions of factors which influenced PA were examined. Descriptive statistics and multiple regression analysis were performed. Immigrant Latino males engaged in PA significantly more often than female participants. In Latino participants, those who engaged in walking activities were more likely to engage in both vigorous (r = .341, p<.005) and moderate PA (r = .317, p <.001). Self-efficacy and acculturation were significant predictors of PA. Acculturation was associated with physical activity, even after adjusting for perceived stress. Findings highlight the continued importance of self-efficacy to foster health promotion in Latino communities.

Socially Assigned Race and Diabetes: Findings from the Arizona Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2013-2014.

Socially assigned race, the racial/ethnic categorization of individuals by others, may serve as the basis for differential or unfair treatment. Latinxs are commonly socially assigned to a race/ethnicity with which they do not self-identify. However, it is unclear the degree to which self-identified Latinxs who are socially assigned as white or Latinx may differentially predict health outcomes beyond general health status and healthcare utilization. We examine the association between socially assigned race and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Data from the Arizona's Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (2013, 2014) was used in a cross-sectional analysis (restricted to Latinxs and non-Hispanic whites; N = 8370) to examine the association between self-identified (SI) and socially assigned (SA) race/ethnicity agreement and T2DM. Latinxs were categorized according to SI-SA race/ethnicity agreement: discordant (SI-SA, different) and concordant (SI-SA, same). T2DM was based on self-reported physician diagnosis. Data were analyzed using Poisson regression models to estimate prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Latinxs comprised 28.5% of our sample, of which, 18.5% was discordant and 81.5% was concordant. In fully adjusted models, concordant Latinxs were more likely to have T2DM than whites (aPR 2.01, 95% CI 1.44, 2.82). There were no significant differences in T2DM between discordant Latinxs and whites. Our results suggest that socially assigned race is an understudied determinant of health and may further understanding of the impact of racial stratification on Latinx health inequities. Additional research examining socially assigned race and other health outcomes are warranted to gain further insight of the biological impact of racialized lived experiences.

Population Smoking Characteristics and Cessation Behaviors in a Nationally Representative Cohort of Hispanic Veterans and Hispanic Non-Veterans.

INTRODUCTION: The proportion of Hispanics in the U.S. Veteran population is expected to increase rapidly in the next several decades. Although Veterans have a heightened smoking risk relative to the civilian population, few studies have examined whether this risk extends to Hispanic Veterans. The aims of the present study were to examine differences in the smoking and cessation characteristics of Hispanic Veterans and Hispanic non-Veterans, and to determine whether these differences persist after controlling for demographics and markers of acculturation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a secondary analysis of the 2014-2015 Tobacco Use Supplement of the Current Population Survey administered by the U.S. Census Bureau. The main analysis included Hispanics aged 18 or older (N = 27,341). Additional analyses were restricted to participants who had smoked at least 100 cigarettes in their lifetime (N = 4,951), and current smokers (N = 2,345). Regressions modeled the associations between Veteran status and demographics, markers of acculturation, smoking characteristics, and cessation behaviors. Additional regressions modeled the associations between Veteran status and the smoking and cessation outcomes while adjusting for demographics and the acculturation variables of U.S. nativity, U.S. citizenship, and English interview language. Probability weights produced nationally representative findings. RESULTS: Hispanic Veterans were older, more likely to be male, and more acculturated than Hispanic non-Veterans. Unadjusted analyses revealed that Hispanic Veterans were more likely to be current daily smokers (8.6% vs. 5.7%, p = 0.015) and much less likely to be never smokers (59.3% vs. 81.0%, p < 0.001) compared to Hispanic non-Veterans. These differences were reduced after adjusting for the demographic and acculturation characteristics of the two groups. However, Hispanic Veterans were still less likely to be never smokers compared to non-Veterans after this adjustment (74.3% vs 80.7%, p < 0.001). In unadjusted analyses, Veterans were less likely to have stopped smoking for one day or longer as part of a quit attempt than non-Veterans (33.2% vs 45.4%, p = 0.056), although this was not a significant difference. Use of telephone quit line was very low for both Hispanic Veterans and Hispanic non-Veterans (4.3%). After adjustment, the difference in the likelihood of stopping smoking for one day or longer as part of a quit attempt was increased, becoming statistically significant (31.4% vs 45.8%, p = 0.030). CONCLUSION: Demographic and acculturation differences account for much, but not all, of the differences in the smoking characteristics and cessation behaviors of Hispanic Veterans and Hispanic non-Veterans. These findings suggest that Hispanic Veterans, and Veterans more broadly, should be a focal point for cessation efforts. These efforts should include facilitating access to under-utilized cessation treatments, and providing coordinated cessation care for Veterans being treated for comorbid health conditions.

A Comparison of Methods for Classifying and Modeling Respondents Who Endorse Multiple Racial/Ethnic Categories: A Health Care Experience Application.

BACKGROUND: Race/ethnicity information is vital for measuring disparities across groups, and self-report is the gold standard. Many surveys assign simplified race/ethnicity based on responses to separate questions about Hispanic ethnicity and race and instruct respondents to "check all that apply." When multiple races are endorsed, standard classification methods either create a single heterogenous multiracial group, or attempt to impute the single choice that would have been selected had only one choice been allowed. OBJECTIVES: To compare 3 options for classifying race/ethnicity: (a) hierarchical, classifying Hispanics as such regardless of racial identification, and grouping together all non-Hispanic multiracial individuals; (b) a newly proposed additive model, retaining all original endorsements plus a multiracial indicator; (c) an all-combinations approach, separately categorizing every observed combination of endorsements. RESEARCH DESIGN: Cross-sectional comparison of racial/ethnic distributions of patient experience scores; using weighted linear regression, we model patient experience by race/ethnicity using 3 classification systems. SUBJECTS: In total, 259,763 Medicare beneficiaries age 65+ who responded to the 2017 Medicare Consumer Assessments of Healthcare Providers and Systems Survey and reported race/ethnicity. MEASURES: Self-reported race/ethnicity, 4 patient experience measures. RESULTS: Additive and hierarchical models produce similar classifications for non-Hispanic single-race respondents, but differ for Hispanic and multiracial respondents. Relative to the gold standard of the all-combinations model, the additive model better captures ratings of health care experiences and response tendencies that differ by race/ethnicity than does the hierarchical model. Differences between models are smaller with more specific measures. CONCLUSIONS: Additive models of race/ethnicity may afford more useful measures of disparities in health care and other domains. Our results have particular relevance for populations with a higher prevalence of multiracial identification.

Race/ethnicity and all-cause mortality in US adults: revisiting the Hispanic paradox.

OBJECTIVES: We examined the association between race/ethnicity and all-cause mortality risk in US adults and whether this association differs by nativity status. METHODS: We used Cox proportional hazards regression to estimate all-cause mortality rates in 1997 through 2004 National Health Interview Survey respondents, relating the risk for Hispanic subgroup, non-Hispanic Black, and other non-Hispanic to non-Hispanic White adults before and after controlling for selected characteristics stratified by age and gender. RESULTS: We observed a Hispanic mortality advantage over non-Hispanic Whites among women that depended on nativity status: US-born Mexican Americans aged 25 to 44 years had a 90% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.03, 0.31) lower death rate; island- or foreign-born Cubans and other Hispanics aged 45 to 64 years were more than two times less likely to die than were their non-Hispanic White counterparts. Island- or foreign-born Puerto Rican and US-born Mexican American women aged 65 years and older exhibited at least a 25% lower rate of dying than did their non-Hispanics White counterparts. CONCLUSIONS: The "Hispanic paradox" may not be a static process and may change with this population growth and its increasing diversity over time.

Omission of radiation therapy after breast-conserving surgery in the United States: a population-based analysis of clinicopathologic factors.

BACKGROUND: Radiation therapy (RT) after breast-conserving surgery (BCS) is associated with a significant reduction in ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence and breast cancer mortality rates in patients with early stage breast cancer. The authors of this report sought to determine which patients with breast cancer do not receive RT after BCS in the United States. METHODS: The Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results registry was used to determine the rates of RT after BCS for women with stage I through III breast cancer in the United States from 1992 through 2007. A multivariate analysis was performed to identify independent predictors of omission of RT. RESULTS: In total, 294,254 patients with invasive, nonmetastatic breast cancer were identified who underwent surgery from 1992 through 2007. Most patients (57%) underwent BCS; among those, 21.1% did not receive RT after BCS. The omission of RT increased significantly from 1992 (15.5%) to 2007 (25%). The receipt of RT also decreased significantly for patients with increased cancer stage, age <55 years, high-grade tumors, large tumors, positive or untested lymph node status, African American or Hispanic race, and negative or unknown estrogen receptor status. Significant geographic variation was observed in the rates of RT after BCS. CONCLUSIONS: The omission of RT after BCS was more common in recent years, especially among women who had an increased risk of breast cancer recurrence. This trend represents a serious health care concern because of the potential increased risk of local recurrence and breast cancer mortality.

¿Es estable la orientación afectiva de los niños hacia los diferentes grupos étnicos? Un estudio longitudinal de las actitudes intragrupo y exogrupo en niños de Escuela Infantil / How stable is children's affective orientation toward different ethnic groups? A longitudinal study of in-group and out-group attitudes among preschoolers

La mayoría de las investigaciones sobre la conciencia étnica y el prejuicio en niños se ha basado en estudios transversales, por lo que tenemos poca información sobre los cambios intraindividuales que ocurren en esta área de desarrollo. ¿Hay una secuencia de desarrollo estable de los diferentes componentes de la conciencia étnica? ¿La preferencia por el endogrupo precede al rechazo del exogrupo, como sugieren los estudios transversales? ¿Y mantienen los niños la misma orientación afectiva hacia diferentes exogrupos? En este artículo se presenta un estudio longitudinal con 50 niños españoles de 4 a 5 años (primera medida) y de 5 a 6 años (segunda medida) en el que se evaluaron varios aspectos de su conciencia étnica y de sus actitudes hacia cuatro grupos (españoles, latinoamericanos, africanos y asiáticos), en un contexto de juego de ordenador. Los resulta-dos mostraron una significativa positividad hacia el endogrupo, pero ausencia de negatividad hacia los exogrupos, tanto en el primer tiempo de medida como en el segundo. De hecho, no hubo diferencias en las atribuciones negativas de los niños al endogrupo y a los exogrupos. Por otra parte, los análisis longitudinales mostraron que la mayoría de los niños no cambió la intensidad de su orientación afectiva hacia cada grupo étnico, un tema que ha recibido poca atención en estudios previos (AU)

Most previous research on children’s ethnic awareness and prejudice has been based on cross-sectional studies; hence we have little in-formation on the intra-individual changes that occur in this area of development. Is there a stable developmental sequence of the different components of ethnic awareness? Does in-group preference precede out-group rejection, as cross-sectional studies do suggest? And do children maintain the same affective orientation toward different out-groups? We con-ducted a longitudinal study with 50 Spanish children aged 4 to 5 years (first measure) and 5 to 6 years (second measure). We assessed several aspects of their ethnic awareness and attitudes toward four groups (Spaniards, Latin Americans, Africans and Asians), within a computer-game context. Results showed a significant in-group positivity but a lack of out-group negativity, both at time 1 and 2. In fact, children’s negative attributions to the in-group and to the out-groups did not differ. On the other hand, the longitudinal analyses revealed that most children did not change the intensity of their affective orientation to each group, an issue that has received little attention in previous studies (AU)

Estudio de las actitudes interétnicas en la infancia a través de una medida implícita / Study of ethnic attitudes in childhood through an implicit measure

El propósito de esta investigación fue analizar cómo se comportan los niños españoles cuando tienen que interpretar y tomar decisiones sobre la conducta de otros niños de diferentes etnias. Para ello se diseñó un juego de ordenador donde 120 niños, 60 de 7-8 años y 60 de 12-13 años, compiten en un juego online (simulado) con otros tres niños de diferentes grupos étnico-nacionales: un español, un marroquí y un latinoamericano. Durante el juego uno de los participantes viola una de las reglas establecidas y el participante debe decidir si se trata de un error o de una trampa y penalizar esta transgresión con una sanción. Al final del juego, se entrevistó a cada participante para valorar sus preferencias hacia los otros jugadores. Los resultados revelan que los jugadores españoles recibieron un menor castigo que los marroquíes y latinoamericanos siendo también los españoles los preferidos mayoritariamente por los participantes. En cuanto a las diferencias evolutivas se observó una preferencia menor hacia el endogrupo por parte de los participantes mayores en compa-ración con los más jóvenes (AU)

The purpose of this study was to examine how Spanish children behave when they have to interpret and make decisions about the behaviour of other children of different ethnicities. We designed a computer game where 120 children, 60 of 7-8 years olds, and 60 of 12-13 years old, competing in an online game (simulated) with three other children from different ethno-national groups: one Spanish, one Moroccan and a Latin American. During the game a participant violates one of the established rules and the participant must decide whether a bug or a trap and punish this violation with a penalty. At the end of the game, each participant was interviewed to assess their preferences to the other players. The results show that Spanish players received less punishment than the Moroccans and the Latin American, and Spanish also being preferred by the majority of participants. Regarding developmental differences were observed less in-group preference by older participants compared to younger ones (AU)

Suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among Hispanic subgroups in the United States: 1991-1992 and 2001-2002.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the prevalence of suicidal ideation/attempts among Hispanic subgroups in the US in 1991-1992 and 2001-2002, and identify high-risk groups. METHOD: Data were drawn from the 1991-1992 National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey (NLAES, n = 42,862) and the 2001-2002 National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC, n = 43,093), two nationally representative surveys of individuals aged 18 years and older. RESULTS: 1) Puerto Ricans are the Hispanic ethnic subgroup with the highest rates of suicide attempts; 2) 45- to 64-year-old Puerto Rican women are a high-risk group for suicide attempts; 3) Over the 10 year period between the two surveys, the lifetime prevalence of suicide attempts significantly increased among 18- to 24-year-old Puerto Rican women and Cuban men, and among 45- to 64-year-old Puerto Rican men. CONCLUSION: Hispanics in the US are not a homogeneous group. We identify high-risk groups among Hispanics. Specific interventions for subgroups of Hispanics at high risk for suicidal behaviors may be required.

Awareness, perceptions, and provider recommendation related to genetic testing for hereditary breast cancer risk among at-risk Hispanic women: similarities and variations by sub-ethnicity.

This study explored awareness of risk factors for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC), awareness, knowledge and concerns about genetic testing, and preference for how to have genetic testing recommended by a care provider among at-risk Hispanic women. Differences in these factors among Mexican, Cuban, and Puerto Rican women were also examined. Women with a personal or family history of breast or ovarian cancer from the Tampa Bay Area participated in a qualitative interview (N = 53). Data were analyzed using a combination of open and axial coding with a grounded theory approach. Study participants in all groups reported: being aware that family history was a breast cancer risk factor, limited knowledge of genetic testing, fear of test results, concerns about children's risks, and no physician referral for genetic testing. Noteworthy sub-ethnic differences included preferences for physician recommendation and information about genetic testing. This study provides important preliminary information about areas related to HBOC that require additional education in the Hispanic community as a whole and by sub-ethnicity.

Identifying and oversampling Hispanics by the Passel-Word surname list for enrollment in a web-based nutritional intervention.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the enrollment rates and characteristics of Hispanics and non-Hispanics from Kaiser Permanente Colorado invited to participate in a web-based intervention promoting increased fruit and vegetable consumption. DESIGN: Hispanics were identified by the Passel-Word Spanish surname list. Characteristics associated with the likelihood of enrollment overall and by ethnicity were examined by logistic regression. RESULTS: A total of 174 (6.1%) probable Hispanics and 340 probable non-Hispanics (11.8%) enrolled. Hispanics were 48% less likely to enroll than non-Hispanics, females were almost four times as likely to enroll as males, and those living in a census tract associated with higher income levels were 41% more likely to enroll than other income groups. Among Hispanics, females were 87% more likely to enroll than males and those living in a census tract associated with higher income levels were 62% more likely to enroll than other income groups. Among non-Hispanics, the odds for enrolling increased 14% for each decade increase of age, females were 43% more likely to enroll than males and those living in a census tract associated with higher income levels were 68% more likely to enroll than those in other income groups. CONCLUSION: Identifying Hispanics through surname for oversampling can be successful in terms of sampling yield and accuracy. However, our results suggest that Hispanics are less likely to enroll in a web-based nutritional intervention. Additional research is needed to identify methods of attracting more Hispanic subjects to these kinds of interventions.

Pain coping in Latino populations.

UNLABELLED: Although there has been a rapid increase in Latino populations in the United States over the last 10 years, health research with Latino cultural groups is sorely lacking. In the area of pain-coping research, one consequence of the limited research is that very little is known about pain coping among Latinos. The purpose of this paper is to review the existing literature on pain coping in Latino populations, and to propose new directions for the future study of pain coping in Latino populations. This review is divided into 4 sections. In the first section, the challenges of defining Latino populations are discussed. In the second section, the current literature on pain coping in Latinos is reviewed. Third, we discuss the implications of existing findings for pain-coping assessment and pain treatment. Finally, we offer ideas for future research on pain coping in Latino populations. PERSPECTIVE: In this review article, we identify gaps in our current understanding of pain coping in Latino cultural groups, and associated implications for pain assessment and treatment. We also highlight potential directions for future pain-coping research with Latino populations.

Risk and protective factors for binge drinking among Hispanic subgroups in Florida.

This study examines differences in risk and protective factors for binge drinking among six ethnic/national subgroups of Hispanic adolescents in Florida. We note differences in the frequency of binge drinking by gender and ethnic subgroup as well as differences in the salience of items drawn from the five domains of risk and protective factors among these subgroups. Rather than treating all Hispanics as a unitary culture, tailoring of prevention programs to address risk and protective factors that differentially affect national/ethnic subgroups may be a valuable strategy when adolescents live in communities that are relatively homogenous in terms of nationality/ethnicity.

Using "socially assigned race" to probe white advantages in health status.

OBJECTIVES: We explore the relationships between socially assigned race ("How do other people usually classify you in this country?"), self-identified race/ethnicity, and excellent or very good general health status. We then take advantage of subgroups which are discordant on self-identified race/ethnicity and socially assigned race to examine whether being classified by others as White conveys an advantage in health status, even for those who do not self-identify as White. METHODS: Analyses were conducted using pooled data from the eight states that used the Reactions to Race module of the 2004 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. RESULTS: The agreement of socially assigned race with self-identified race/ethnicity varied across the racial/ethnic groups currently defined by the United States government. Included among those usually classified by others as White were 26.8% of those who self-identified as Hispanic, 47.6% of those who self-identified as American Indian, and 59.5% of those who self-identified with More than one race. Among those who self-identified as Hispanic, the age-, education-, and language-adjusted proportion reporting excellent or very good health was 8.7 percentage points higher for those socially assigned as White than for those socially assigned as Hispanic (P=.04); among those who self-identified as American Indian, that proportion was 15.4 percentage points higher for those socially assigned as White than for those socially assigned as American Indian (P=.05); and among those who self-identified with More than one race, that proportion was 23.6 percentage points higher for those socially assigned as White than for those socially assigned as Black (P<.01). On the other hand, no significant differences were found between those socially assigned as White who self-identified as White and those socially assigned as White who self-identified as Hispanic, as American Indian, or with More than one race. CONCLUSIONS: Being classified by others as White is associated with large and statistically significant advantages in health status, no matter how one self-identifies.

Skin color and mortality risk among men: the Puerto Rico Heart Health Program.

PURPOSE: To examine the association between skin color and all-cause and cardiovascular disease (CVD)-related mortality risk before and after adjusting for selected characteristics and risk factors, we used data on 5,304 men with information on skin color at Exam 3 of the Puerto Rico Heart Health program (PRHHP), a longitudinal study of the incidence of coronary heart disease in Puerto Rican men. METHODS: Mortality was ascertained using hospital and physician records, postmortem records, death certificates, and information from the next of kin. RESULTS: Dark-skinned men exhibited higher age-adjusted mortality rates than light skinned men (10.1 vs. 8.8/10,000 population). There was no association between skin color and all-cause and CVD-related mortality. However, the association between skin color and all-cause mortality varied with area of residence (p for interaction = 0.05). Among men living in urban areas, the risk of all-cause mortality was 28% (95% confidence interval, 1.02-1.61) greater among dark-skinned men than their light-skinned counterparts after adjusting for age, education, BMI, physical activity, and the presence of diabetes. There was no association between skin color and CVD mortality in urban men. Neither all-cause nor CVD mortality was associated with skin color among rural men. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that skin color may be capturing environmental dynamics that may influence mortality risk among Puerto Rican men.

Quality of race, Hispanic ethnicity, and immigrant status in population-based cancer registry data: implications for health disparity studies.

Population-based cancer registry data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program at the National Cancer Institute are based on medical records and administrative information. Although SEER data have been used extensively in health disparities research, the quality of information concerning race, Hispanic ethnicity, and immigrant status has not been systematically evaluated. The quality of this information was determined by comparing SEER data with self-reported data among 13,538 cancer patients diagnosed between 1973-2001 in the SEER--National Longitudinal Mortality Study linked database. The overall agreement was excellent on race (kappa = 0.90, 95% CI = 0.88-0.91), moderate to substantial on Hispanic ethnicity (kappa = 0.61, 95% CI = 0.58-0.64), and low on immigrant status (kappa = 0.21. 95% CI = 0.10, 0.23). The effect of these disagreements was that SEER data tended to under-classify patient numbers when compared to self-identifications, except for the non-Hispanic group which was slightly over-classified. These disagreements translated into varying racial-, ethnic-, and immigrant status-specific cancer statistics, depending on whether self-reported or SEER data were used. In particular, the 5-year Kaplan-Meier survival and the median survival time from all causes for American Indians/Alaska Natives were substantially higher when based on self-classification (59% and 140 months, respectively) than when based on SEER classification (44% and 53 months, respectively), although the number of patients is small. These results can serve as a useful guide to researchers contemplating the use of population-based registry data to ascertain disparities in cancer burden. In particular, the study results caution against evaluating health disparities by using birthplace as a measure of immigrant status and race information for American Indians/Alaska Natives.