Medicine during the Nazi period and the Holocaust: what are the implications? An interview with Volker Roelcke.

In this interview, Volker Roelcke explains and analyzes historical evidence refuting erroneous assumptions about medical atrocities committed by physicians during the Nazi era, provides insight into the implications of medicine during the Nazi period and the Holocaust for medicine and bioethics today, analyzes the history of the term "genocide," and suggests formats for future teaching, among other topics.

Health Professionals, Human Rights Violations at the US-Mexico Border, and Holocaust Legacy.

Health professionals caring for asylum seekers face decisions about whether to participate in force-feeding hunger strikers, performing and reviewing unnecessary x-rays to assess detainees' ages, misusing detainees' health information, and discharging patients based on immigration officials' demands rather than patient safety. The latter action is a classic dual-loyalty dilemma reminiscent of some clinicians' actions during the Holocaust. This article investigates how professional organizations can support clinicians targeted by the state for resisting immigration officials' demands for their participation in human rights violations, opposing policies that compromise health professional values, and refusing to engage in unethical detention practices.

The last witnesses: Learning about life and death from aging survivors.

Massive psychic trauma due to genocidal persecution leaves an indelible imprint upon the psyche. These effects, however, may be variable due to many factors, such as one's age during the onset of the trauma, the nature of the trauma, its duration, post-liberation experiences, etc. While these effects persist throughout one's life, this presentation will focus on the end of the life cycle when survivors, like everyone else, are faced with the prospect of infirmity, illness, dependence, loss of loved ones, helplessness and ultimately death. There may be an emergence, reemergence, intensification and/or transformation of Holocaust memory and symptoms as the sands of time in the hourglass of life are running out. This phenomenon appears to be on a continuum with the so-called deathbed confession and the doorknob phenomenon at the end of a therapy session. The extent to which Holocaust trauma is integrated as opposed to being walled off through repression or dissociation also influences this "hourglass effect." Findings will be presented from the clinical situation, a semi-structured interviewing project with child survivors, survivors' testimony, accounts in the literature and personal relationships.

"Crimes against the Nervous System": Neurological References During the Nuremberg Doctors' Trials.

The Nuremberg Trials were a sequence of tribunal sessions held by the Allied Forces between November 1945 and October 1946 with the intent of prosecuting prominent representatives of the Nazi Party for crimes committed before and during the war. Because medical experiments in human prisoners were among the most heinous offenses, a specific series of court cases, known as the Doctor's Trials (the USA vs. Karl Brandt et al), was carried out. A considerable part of the official documents of the Nuremberg Trials has been recently made publicly available through the Nuremberg Trials Project, an initiative of the Harvard Law School Library. We performed a comprehensive analysis of the Doctors' Trials original documents (NMT 1: Medical Case) as well as other available academic and historical sources focusing on references to the nervous system, neurosurgical, and neurologic diseases. Besides providing a brief glance of a unique source of original historical documents, this historical vignette also attempts to fulfill, at least in some limited sense, the moral duty toward the Holocaust victims laid on our generation by remembering their fate.

Humor mórbido: defesa e tradução do horror na Shoah / Black humor: defense and translation of horror in the Shoah / Humor mórbido: defensa y traducción del horror en Shoah

Analisamos o humor mórbido produzido pelas vítimas dos campos de concentração nazistas, durante a catástrofe social que foi a Shoah, do ponto de vista da defesa, proposta por Freud, com o engrandecimento do ego, a preservação da integridade narcísica do ego, e como forma ímpar de extrair prazer da própria dor. E do ponto de vista da tradução psíquica do sexual, a partir da Teoria da Sedução Generalizada de J. Laplanche. Trata-se tanto da tradução do excesso transmitido pelo algoz, violência extrema, como da retradução do próprio polimórfico perverso reativado nas vítimas. Discutimos o paradoxo que se instala, pois, se por um lado o humor mórbido teria uma função defensiva e tradutiva do excesso para quem o produz e para quem ri dele, por outro, pode representar um ato de agressão e revitimização de quem se ri

We analyze the black humor produced by the victims of the Nazi concentration camps during the social catastrophe that was the Shoah, from the point of view of the defense, proposed by Freud, with the enlargement of the ego, preserving his narcissistic integrity, and as an odd way to extract pleasure from pain itself. Also from the point of view of psychic translation of the sexual, with the Theory of Generalized Seduction of J. Laplanche. This concerns both the translation of excess transmitted by the executioner, extreme violence, as well as the retranslation of polymorphic perverse reactivated in the victims themselves. We discuss the paradox that is installed because if on one hand the black Humor would have a defensive and translational function of the excess to those who produce and who laughs with that, on the other hand, may represent an act of aggression and victimization of those who are laughed at

Analizamos el humor mórbido producido por las víctimas de los campos de concentración nazis, durante la catástrofe social que fue Shoah, desde el punto de vista de la defensa, propuesto por Freud, con el engrandecimento del ego, la preservación de la integridad narcisista del ego, y como forma impar de extraer placer del propio dolor. Y desde el punto de vista de la traducción psíquica de lo sexual, a partir de la Teoría de la Seducción Generalizada de J. Laplanche.. Se trata tanto de la traducción del exceso transmitido por el verdugo, violencia extrema, como de la retraducción del propio polimórfico perverso reactivado en las víctimas. Discutimos la paradoja que se instala, pues, si por un lado el humor mórbido tendría una función defensiva y traductora del exceso para quien lo produce y para quien se ríe con eso, por otro, puede representar un acto de agresión y revictimización de quien se ríe

American Doctors at the Nuremberg Medical Trial.

Three Hippocratic physicians played critical roles in the prosecution of 23 Nazi doctors charged with murder and torture for conducting lethal medical experiments on concentration camp prisoners. Two of the physicians, Leopold Alexander and Andrew C. Ivy, were Americans, and the other, Werner Leibbrandt, was German. At the 70th anniversary of the Doctors' Trial it is fitting to recall the three's influences and contributions to the formulation of strict research ethics rules, known as the Nuremberg Code. Their contributions help us better understand why they insisted on strict research rules and yet ultimately were unable to apply these rules to their own research. Exploring their contributions at Nuremberg may help us appreciate the continuing difficulty physician-researchers have with accepting public regulation of research.

A narrativa testemunhal e o enredamento do traumático no psiquismoa / Eye-witness accounts and the complexities of traumas in the mental apparatus / Écriture de témoignage et l'enchevêtrement du traumatique dans le psychisme / La narrativa testimonial y el enredamiento de lo traumático en lo psíquico

Neste artigo, discutimos a narrativa testemunhal de sobreviventes da maior atrocidade do século XX - a Shoah - a partir da Teoria da Sedução Generalizada (TSG). Compreendemos a narrativa como possibilidade de tradução do traumático, em que o sobrevivente, após tantas perdas significativas - do seu nome, sua dignidade, seus seres queridos... -, pode, por meio da escritura, temporalizar a sua existência e a representação de si mesmo. Ao mesmo tempo, o testemunho permite a criação de espaços memoriais, onde é possível erguer, simbolicamente, lápides para os que não sobreviveram ao horror.

In this article, we discuss eye-witness accounts of the greatest atrocity of the 20th century - the Shoah - using the general theory of seduction. We see such accounts as possible translations of the traumatic elements by survivors who, after numerous significant losses - of name, dignity, loved ones - may, through writing, temporalize their existence and self-representations. These accounts can also enable survivors to open up spaces of memory where tombstones for those who succumbed to the horror can be raised.

Cet article discute l'écriture de témoignages de survivants de la plus grande atrocité du XXe siècle - la Shoah - à partir de la Théorie de la Séduction Généralisée (TSG). On comprend la narrative en tant que possibilité de traduction du traumatique, permettant au survivant, après maintes pertes significatives - leur nom, leur dignité, leurs proches... -, au moyen de l'écriture, de temporaliser son existence et la représentation de soi-même. Ce témoignage permet d'ailleurs de créer des espaces mémoriels, soit d'ériger symboliquement des pierres tombales pour ceux qui n'ont pas survécu à l'horreur.

En el presente artículo discutimos la narrativa testimonial de sobrevivientes de la mayor atrocidad del siglo XX - el Shoah - a partir de la Teoría de la Seducción Generalizada (TSG). Comprendemos la narrativa como una posibilidad de traducción de lo traumático, en donde el sobreviviente, después de tantas pérdidas significativas - de su nombre, su dignidad, sus seres queridos... -, puede, con la escritura historiar no sólo su existencia, mas también la representación de si mismo. Al mismo tempo, el testimonio permite la creación de memoriales, donde se puede levantar simbólicamente una lápida para los que no sobrevivieron al horror.

A narrativa testemunhal e o enredamento do traumático no psiquismoa / Eye-witness accounts and the complexities of traumas in the mental apparatus / Écriture de témoignage et l'enchevêtrement du traumatique dans le psychisme / La narrativa testimonial y el enredamiento de lo traumático en lo psíquico

Neste artigo, discutimos a narrativa testemunhal de sobreviventes da maior atrocidade do século XX - a Shoah - a partir da Teoria da Sedução Generalizada (TSG). Compreendemos a narrativa como possibilidade de tradução do traumático, em que o sobrevivente, após tantas perdas significativas - do seu nome, sua dignidade, seus seres queridos... -, pode, por meio da escritura, temporalizar a sua existência e a representação de si mesmo. Ao mesmo tempo, o testemunho permite a criação de espaços memoriais, onde é possível erguer, simbolicamente, lápides para os que não sobreviveram ao horror.(AU)

In this article, we discuss eye-witness accounts of the greatest atrocity of the 20th century - the Shoah - using the general theory of seduction. We see such accounts as possible translations of the traumatic elements by survivors who, after numerous significant losses - of name, dignity, loved ones - may, through writing, temporalize their existence and self-representations. These accounts can also enable survivors to open up spaces of memory where tombstones for those who succumbed to the horror can be raised.(AU)

Cet article discute l'écriture de témoignages de survivants de la plus grande atrocité du XXe siècle - la Shoah - à partir de la Théorie de la Séduction Généralisée (TSG). On comprend la narrative en tant que possibilité de traduction du traumatique, permettant au survivant, après maintes pertes significatives - leur nom, leur dignité, leurs proches... -, au moyen de l'écriture, de temporaliser son existence et la représentation de soi-même. Ce témoignage permet d'ailleurs de créer des espaces mémoriels, soit d'ériger symboliquement des pierres tombales pour ceux qui n'ont pas survécu à l'horreur.(AU)

En el presente artículo discutimos la narrativa testimonial de sobrevivientes de la mayor atrocidad del siglo XX - el Shoah - a partir de la Teoría de la Seducción Generalizada (TSG). Comprendemos la narrativa como una posibilidad de traducción de lo traumático, en donde el sobreviviente, después de tantas pérdidas significativas - de su nombre, su dignidad, sus seres queridos... -, puede, con la escritura historiar no sólo su existencia, mas también la representación de si mismo. Al mismo tempo, el testimonio permite la creación de memoriales, donde se puede levantar simbólicamente una lápida para los que no sobrevivieron al horror.(AU)

Irena Sendler, La Enfermera Salvadora Del Gueto De Varsovia / Irena Sendler, the saving nurse of childrens of warsaw Ghetto

El objetivo del presente artículo es hacer un resumen de la vida de Irena Sendler, una enfermeraque salvó a más de 2500 niños durante la II Guerra Mundial y cuya hazaña es prácticamentedesconocida para la mayor parte de la población en general. La figura de Irena Sendler debe sermás conocida por parte de todo el mundo, ya que puede servir como motivación para queenfermeros y población en general valoren la protección de la vida sin esperar nada a cambio.Para llevar a cabo este artículo se ha realizado una revisión bibliográfica en diferentes bases dedatos, como CINAHL, CUIDEN o SCOPUS, así como algunos libros relacionados con el tema. A pesarde ser una figura importante para la vida de muchas personas, no se encontraron muchaspublicaciones sobre Irena Sendler. Con las obtenidas, se creó una biografía sobre ella. Irena Sendler representa uno de los ejemplos más claros de que la Enfermería no sólo protege la vidadentro de un hospital, sino que se extiende a cualquier ámbito y a cualquier lugar.

A review on the evidence of transgenerational transmission of posttraumatic stress disorder vulnerability

Objective: To understand the risks of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) development in the next generation of PTSD patients, we conducted a review on the biological, but not genetic, evidence of transgenerational transmission of PTSD vulnerability. Methods: Pertinent articles published from 1985 to September 2011 were searched using online academic search engines, including MEDLINE, EMBASE, ScienceDirect, OVID, PsycLIT, and SCOPUS, and a non-systematic review was conducted. Results: There is paradoxical evidence that hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis changes in PTSD patients may also be evident in their offspring. This effect and biological vulnerability to PTSD may be transmitted across generations through maternal epigenetic programming during pregnancy. The samples of most studies, which were not large enough and represented the outcome of few research groups, consisted of a specific type of patients with a particular trauma. Conclusions: There is still a need to conduct studies in other geographical areas with different genetic background and larger samples considering different types of trauma other than those specified in the current literature, so as to strengthen the evidence of transgenerational transmission of PTSD vulnerability. .

A review on the evidence of transgenerational transmission of posttraumatic stress disorder vulnerability.

OBJECTIVE: To understand the risks of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) development in the next generation of PTSD patients, we conducted a review on the biological, but not genetic, evidence of transgenerational transmission of PTSD vulnerability. METHODS: Pertinent articles published from 1985 to September 2011 were searched using online academic search engines, including MEDLINE, EMBASE, ScienceDirect, OVID, PsycLIT, and SCOPUS, and a non-systematic review was conducted. RESULTS: There is paradoxical evidence that hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis changes in PTSD patients may also be evident in their offspring. This effect and biological vulnerability to PTSD may be transmitted across generations through maternal epigenetic programming during pregnancy. The samples of most studies, which were not large enough and represented the outcome of few research groups, consisted of a specific type of patients with a particular trauma. CONCLUSIONS: There is still a need to conduct studies in other geographical areas with different genetic background and larger samples considering different types of trauma other than those specified in the current literature, so as to strengthen the evidence of transgenerational transmission of PTSD vulnerability.

Transgenerational transmission of trauma and resilience: a qualitative study with Brazilian offspring of Holocaust survivors.

BACKGROUND: Over the past five decades, clinicians and researchers have debated the impact of the Holocaust on the children of its survivors. The transgenerational transmission of trauma has been explored in more than 500 articles, which have failed to reach reliable conclusions that could be generalized. The psychiatric literature shows mixed findings regarding this subject: many clinical studies reported psychopathological findings related to transgenerational transmission of trauma and some empirical research has found no evidence of this phenomenon in offspring of Holocaust survivors. METHOD: This qualitative study aims to detect how the second generation perceives transgenerational transmission of their parents' experiences in the Holocaust. In-depth individual interviews were conducted with fifteen offspring of Holocaust survivors and sought to analyze experiences, meanings and subjective processes of the participants. A Grounded Theory approach was employed, and constant comparative method was used for analysis of textual data. RESULTS: The development of conceptual categories led to the emergence of distinct patterns of communication from parents to their descendants. The qualitative methodology also allowed systematization of the different ways in which offspring can deal with parental trauma, which determine the development of specific mechanisms of traumatic experience or resilience in the second generation. CONCLUSIONS: The conceptual categories constructed by the Grounded Theory approach were used to present a possible model of the transgenerational transmission of trauma, showing that not only traumatic experiences, but also resilience patterns can be transmitted to and developed by the second generation. As in all qualitative studies, these conclusions cannot be generalized, but the findings can be tested in other contexts.

Irena Sendler: a nurse example of love of freedom / Irena Sendler: una enfermera ejemplo de amor a la libertad

This article summarizes the life of Polish nurse, Irena Sendler, who during the Second World War helped in the escape of over 2500 Jewish children, held in the Warsaw ghetto. In spite of having been arrested by the Gestapo, she never revealed the names or whereabouts of the children she saved. Irena reminds us that nursing is the art of protecting the lives of others.

En este artículo se resume la vida de la enfermera polaca Irena Sendler, quien durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, ayudó a escapar a más de 2 500 niños judíos recluidos en el gueto de Varsovia. Aunque fue arrestada por la Gestapo, nunca reveló los nombres ni el paradero de los niños a quienes salvó. Irena nos recuerda que la enfermería es un arte para proteger la vida de los demás.

Este artigo faz um resumo da vida da enfermeira polaca Irena Sendler, quem durante a segunda guerra mundial, ajudou a escapar a mais de 2 500 meninos judeus enclausurados no gueto de Varsóvia. Apesar de ter sido presa pela Gestapo, nunca revelou os nomes nem o paradeiro dos meninos a quem salvou. Irena nos recorda que a enfermagem é uma arte para proteger a vida dos demais.

O extermínio e a liquidação da tragédia: a respeito de Kertész e da língua atonal / The extermination and the liquidation of tragedy. In reference to Kertész and to atonal language

Partindo da invenção da narrativa heróica – tal como Freud a concebe em Psicologia de grupo e a análise do Eu – e passando pela função da tragédia na constituição do espaço político – tal como Jean-Pierre Vernant a elabora –, Laurence Kahn tenta abordar aquilo que lhe parece ser uma das problemáticas da obra de Imre Kertész, apoiando-se igualmente nos textos de Hannah Arendt. Recusando qualquer comiseração para com o extermínio e seu caráter irrepresentável, Kertész tenta encontrar uma língua para significar a liquidação da tragédia e fazer uma pergunta: o que é ser inocente?

Starting from the invention of the heroic narrative – such as it is conceived by Freud in Group psychology and the analysis of Me – and passed through by the tragedy function in the constitution of the political space – such as Jean-Pierre Vermant elaborates it – Laurence Khan tries to address what she thinks it could be one of the issues of the work of Imre Kertesz, equally relying on Hannah Arendt’s texts. Refusing any commiseration with extermination and its unrepresentative character, Kertesz tries to find a language to give meaning to liquidation of tragedy and to make a question: what is to be innocent?

Partiendo de la invención de la narrativa heroica – tal como la concibe Freud en Psicología de grupo y el análisis del Yo – y pasando por la función de la tragedia en la constitución del espacio político – tal como la elabora Jean-Pierre Vernant –, Laurence Kahn trata de enfocar aquello que le parece ser una de las problemáticas de la obra de Imre Kertész, apoyándose igualmente en los textos de Hannah Arendt. Rechazando cualquier conmiseración para con el exterminio y su carácter irrepresentable, Kertész busca encontrar una lengua para significar la liquidación de la tragedia y hacer una pregunta: ¿qué es ser inocente?

Quando a Shoah é um trauma: e o pai desaparece da teoria analítica / When Shoah is a trauma: and the father disappears from the psychoanalytical theory

Interrogando as teorias psicanalíticas que se desenvolveram no pós-guerra em torno do traumatismo “extremo” sofrido pelos deportados para os campos de concentração nazistas, a autora estuda e critica o primado atribuído ao aniquilamento de toda vida psíquica no sobrevivente – com desqualificação dos mecanismos que permitem a representação psíquica, recusa de qualquer funcionamento do recalque, perda das referências simbólicas articuladas com a função paterna e prevalência dos processos empáticos – ao mesmo tempo em que, além disso, a pulsão de morte não é tida em conta. De que maneira a psicanálise respondeu com sua própria teoria do assassinato e da destrutividade, quando se constata que a barbárie teve como consequência uma modificação do marco teórico da metapsicologia? Até que ponto esse efeito não faria parte da tentativa totalitária de matar a própria psicanálise?

Questioning the psychoanalytical theories that developed in post-war around the “extreme” trauma suffered by people deported to the Nazis concentration camps, the author studies and criticizes the pre-eminence given to the annihilation of all psychic life in the survivor – with disqualifications of the mechanisms that allow the psychic representation, refusal of any functioning of repression, loss of the symbolic references articulated with the father function and prevalence of the empathic processes – at the same time that, besides that, the death drive is not taken into account. How did psychoanalysis with its own theory of murder and of destructiveness responded, when its found that the barbarie had as consequence a modification of the theoretical mark of metapsychology? Up to what point that effect would not make part on the sole attempt to destroy psychoanalysis?

Interrogando las teorías psicoanalíticas que se desarrollaron en el post guerra acerca del traumatismo “extremado” sufrido por los deportados hacia los campos de concentración nazistas, la autora estudia y critica el primado atribuido a la aniquilación de toda vida psíquica en el sobreviviente – con descalificación de los mecanismos que permiten la representación psíquica, rechazo de cualquier funcionamiento del recalque, pérdida de las referencias simbólicas articuladas con la función paterna y prevalencia de los procesos empáticos – al mismo tiempo que no se tiene en cuenta, además, la pulsión de muerte. ¿De qué manera el psicoanálisis ha respondido con su propia teoría del asesinato y de la destructividad, cuando se constata que la barbarie tuvo como consecuencia una modificación del marco teórico de la metapsicología? ¿Hasta qué punto ese efecto no formaría parte del intento totalitario de matar al mismo psicoanálisis?

Cientificismo e antirracismo no pós-2ª Guerra Mundial: uma análise das primeiras Declarações sobre Raça da Unesco / Scientism and antiracism in post-Second World War: an analysis of the first UNESCO Statements on Race

Após a 2ª Guerra Mundial, a Organização das Nações Unidas para a Educação, a Ciência e a Cultura (Unesco) definiu uma agenda contra o racismo, ainda sob o impacto do Holocausto, da persistência do racismo e do processo de descolonização. O debate promovido pela Unesco em 1949 e 1951 sobre o estatuto científico do conceito de raça gerou as duas primeiras declarações sobre o tema patrocinadas pela instituição internacional. A Unesco nutria a esperança de que sociólogos, antropólogos e geneticistas viessem a produzir uma visão radicalmente crítica da noção de raça que permitisse uma ampla campanha educacional antirracismo. Verificou-se, contudo, uma série de divergências em torno de 'raça', em que o conceito foi reiterado. Neste capítulo são reveladas as continuidades e descontinuidades no debate sobre raça na primeira metade do século XX. (AU)

Cientificismo e antirracismo no pós-2ª Guerra Mundial: uma análise das primeiras Declarações sobre Raça da Unesco / Scientism and antiracism in post-Second World War: an analysis of the first UNESCO Statements on Race

Após a 2ª Guerra Mundial, a Organização das Nações Unidas para a Educação, a Ciência e a Cultura (Unesco) definiu uma agenda contra o racismo, ainda sob o impacto do Holocausto, da persistência do racismo e do processo de descolonização. O debate promovido pela Unesco em 1949 e 1951 sobre o estatuto científico do conceito de raça gerou as duas primeiras declarações sobre o tema patrocinadas pela instituição internacional. A Unesco nutria a esperança de que sociólogos, antropólogos e geneticistas viessem a produzir uma visão radicalmente crítica da noção de raça que permitisse uma ampla campanha educacional antirracismo. Verificou-se, contudo, uma série de divergências em torno de 'raça', em que o conceito foi reiterado. Neste capítulo são reveladas as continuidades e descontinuidades no debate sobre raça na primeira metade do século XX.

Mauschwitz: deslocamentos imaginários / Mauschwitz: desplazamientos imaginarios / Mauschwitz: imaginary displacements

Maus, graphic novel de autoria de Art Spiegelman, obteve grande sucesso de público e crítica, sendo agraciado com o Prêmio Pulitzer de literatura em 1992, apesar de ter como fio condutor a história de um judeu sobrevivente dos campos de concentração. Não bastasse essa temática tão surpreendente e mesmo inusitada, Spiegelman opta por representar seus personagens como animais e toma como representação dos judeus a figura do rato, mesma imagem que a propaganda nazista utilizou para associar os judeus à idéia de sujeira, dejeto ou praga a ser exterminada. Neste artigo pretendemos apresentar os diversos deslocamentos, tanto formais quanto de conteúdo, que permitiram a Spiegelman construir essa narrativa ímpar.

Maus, a graphic novel by Art Spiegelman, was successful with both the public and the critique, winning the Pulitzer Literature Prize in 1992, although it has as its conductor line the story of a Jew that survived the concentration camps. In spite of this surprising and unusual theme, Spiegelman chooses to represent his characters as animals, depicting the Jews as mice, the same image used by the nazi propaganda to associate the Jews to filthiness, dejecta or plague to be exterminated. In this article, we intend to present the various displacements, not only formal but also in content, which allowed Spiegelman to construct this unique narrative.

Maus, graphic novel de autoría de Art Spiegelman, obtuvo gran éxito de público e crítica, y fue agraciado con el Premio Pulitzer de literatura en 1992, a pesar de tratarse de la historia de un judío sobreviviente de los campos de concentración. Además de este tema tan sorprendente e inclusive inusitado, Spiegelman opta por representar sus personajes como animales y toma como representación de los judíos la figura del ratón, la misma imagen que la propaganda nazista utilizó para asociar los judíos a la idea de suciedad, residuo o plaga a ser exterminada. En este artículo pretendemos presentar los diversos desplazamientos, tanto formales como de contenido, que permitieron a Spiegelman construir esa narrativa impar.