Characterization of the Bottlenecks and Pathways for Inhibitor Dissociation from [NiFe] Hydrogenase.

[NiFe] hydrogenases can act as efficient catalysts for hydrogen oxidation and biofuel production. However, some [NiFe] hydrogenases are inhibited by gas molecules present in the environment, such as O2 and CO. One strategy to engineer [NiFe] hydrogenases and achieve O2- and CO-tolerant enzymes is by introducing point mutations to block the access of inhibitors to the catalytic site. In this work, we characterized the unbinding pathways of CO in the complex with the wild-type and 10 different mutants of [NiFe] hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio fructosovorans using τ-random accelerated molecular dynamics (τRAMD) to enhance the sampling of unbinding events. The ranking provided by the relative residence times computed with τRAMD is in agreement with experiments. Extensive data analysis of the simulations revealed that from the two bottlenecks proposed in previous studies for the transit of gas molecules (residues 74 and 122 and residues 74 and 476), only one of them (residues 74 and 122) effectively modulates diffusion and residence times for CO. We also computed pathway probabilities for the unbinding of CO, O2, and H2 from the wild-type [NiFe] hydrogenase, and we observed that while the most probable pathways are the same, the secondary pathways are different. We propose that introducing mutations to block the most probable paths, in combination with mutations to open the main secondary path used by H2, can be a feasible strategy to achieve CO and O2 resistance in the [NiFe] hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio fructosovorans.

Cascade reactions with two non-physiological partners for NAD(P)H regeneration via renewable hydrogen.

An attractive application of hydrogenases, combined with the availability of cheap and renewable hydrogen (i.e., from solar and wind powered electrolysis or from recycled wastes), is the production of high-value electron-rich intermediates such as reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotides. Here, the capability of a very robust and oxygen-resilient [FeFe]-hydrogenase (CbA5H) from Clostridium beijerinckii SM10, previously identified in our group, combined with a reductase (BMR) from Bacillus megaterium (now reclassified as Priestia megaterium) was tested. The system shows a good stability and it was demonstrated to reach up to 28 ± 2 nmol NADPH regenerated s-1 mg of hydrogenase-1 (i.e., 1.68 ± 0.12 U mg-1, TOF: 126 ± 9 min-1) and 0.46 ± 0.04 nmol NADH regenerated s-1 mg of hydrogenase-1 (i.e., 0.028 ± 0.002 U mg-1, TOF: 2.1 ± 0.2 min-1), meaning up to 74 mg of NADPH and 1.23 mg of NADH produced per hour by a system involving 1 mg of CbA5H. The TOF is comparable with similar systems based on hydrogen as regenerating molecule for NADPH, but the system is first of its kind as for the [FeFe]-hydrogenase and the non-physiological partners used. As a proof of concept a cascade reaction involving CbA5H, BMR and a mutant BVMO from Acinetobacter radioresistens able to oxidize indole is presented. The data show how the cascade can be exploited for indigo production and multiple reaction cycles can be sustained using the regenerated NADPH.

Predicting the Structure of Enzymes with Metal Cofactors: The Example of [FeFe] Hydrogenases.

The advent of deep learning algorithms for protein folding opened a new era in the ability of predicting and optimizing the function of proteins once the sequence is known. The task is more intricate when cofactors like metal ions or small ligands are essential to functioning. In this case, the combined use of traditional simulation methods based on interatomic force fields and deep learning predictions is mandatory. We use the example of [FeFe] hydrogenases, enzymes of unicellular algae promising for biotechnology applications to illustrate this situation. [FeFe] hydrogenase is an iron-sulfur protein that catalyzes the chemical reduction of protons dissolved in liquid water into molecular hydrogen as a gas. Hydrogen production efficiency and cell sensitivity to dioxygen are important parameters to optimize the industrial applications of biological hydrogen production. Both parameters are related to the organization of iron-sulfur clusters within protein domains. In this work, we propose possible three-dimensional structures of Chlorella vulgaris 211/11P [FeFe] hydrogenase, the sequence of which was extracted from the recently published genome of the given strain. Initial structural models are built using: (i) the deep learning algorithm AlphaFold; (ii) the homology modeling server SwissModel; (iii) a manual construction based on the best known bacterial crystal structure. Missing iron-sulfur clusters are included and microsecond-long molecular dynamics of initial structures embedded into the water solution environment were performed. Multiple-walkers metadynamics was also used to enhance the sampling of structures encompassing both functional and non-functional organizations of iron-sulfur clusters. The resulting structural model provided by deep learning is consistent with functional [FeFe] hydrogenase characterized by peculiar interactions between cofactors and the protein matrix.

Final Stages in the Biosynthesis of the [FeFe]-Hydrogenase Active Site.

The paper aims to elucidate the final stages in the biosynthesis of the [2Fe]H active site of the [FeFe]-hydrogenases. The recently hypothesized intermediate [Fe2(SCH2NH2)2(CN)2(CO)4]2- ([1]2-) was prepared by a multistep route from [Fe2(S2)(CN)(CO)5]-. The following synthetic intermediates were characterized in order: [Fe2(SCH2NHFmoc)2(CNBEt3)(CO)5]-, [Fe2(SCH2NHFmoc)2(CN)-(CO)5]-, and [Fe2(SCH2NHFmoc)2(CN)2(CO)4]2-, where Fmoc is fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl). Derivatives of these anions include [K(18-crown-6)]+, PPh4 + and PPN+ salts as well as the 13CD2-isotopologues. These Fe2 species exist as a mixture of two isomers attributed to diequatorial (ee) and axial-equatorial (ae) stereochemistry at sulfur. In vitro experiments demonstrate that [1]2- maturates HydA1 in the presence of HydF and a cocktail of reagents. HydA1 can also be maturated using a highly simplified cocktail, omitting HydF and other proteins. This result is consistent with HydA1 participating in the maturation process and refines the roles of HydF.

Inactivation of hydrogenase-3 leads to enhancement of 1,3-propanediol and 2,3-butanediol production by Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Klebsiella pneumoniae can use glucose or glycerol as carbon sources to produce 1,3-propanediol or 2,3-butanediol, respectively. In the metabolism of Klebsiella pneumoniae, hydrogenase-3 is responsible for H2 production from formic acid, but it is not directly related to the synthesis pathways for 1,3-propanediol and 2,3-butanediol. In the first part of this research, hycEFG, which encodes subunits of the enzyme hydrogenase-3, was knocked out, so K. pneumoniae ΔhycEFG lost the ability to produce H2 during cultivation using glycerol as a carbon source. As a consequence, the concentration of 1,3-propanediol increased and the substrate (glycerol) conversion ratio reached 0.587 mol/mol. Then, K. pneumoniae ΔldhAΔhycEFG was constructed to erase lactic acid synthesis which led to the further increase of 1,3-propanediol concentration. A substrate (glycerol) conversion ratio of 0.628 mol/mol in batch conditions was achieved, which was higher compared to the wild type strain (0.545 mol/mol). Furthermore, since adhE encodes an alcohol dehydrogenase that catalyzes ethanol production from acetaldehyde, K. pneumoniae ΔldhAΔadhEΔhycEFG was constructed to prevent ethanol production. Contrary to expectations, this did not lead to a further increase, but to a decrease in 1,3-propanediol production. In the second part of this research, glucose was used as the carbon source to produce 2,3-butanediol. Knocking out hycEFG had distinct positive effect on 2,3-butanediol production. Especially in K. pneumoniae ΔldhAΔadhEΔhycEFG, a substrate (glucose) conversion ratio of 0.730 mol/mol was reached, which is higher compared to wild type strain (0.504 mol/mol). This work suggests that the inactivation of hydrogenase-3 may have a global effect on the metabolic regulation of K. pneumoniae, leading to the improvement of the production of two industrially important bulk chemicals, 1,3-propanediol and 2,3-butanediol.

H2 production under stress: [FeFe]­hydrogenases reveal strong stability in high pressure environments.

Hydrogenases are a diverse group of metalloenzymes that catalyze the conversion of H2 into protons and electrons and the reverse reaction. A subgroup is formed by the [FeFe]­hydrogenases, which are the most efficient enzymes of microbes for catalytic H2 conversion. We have determined the stability and activity of two [FeFe]­hydrogenases under high temperature and pressure conditions employing FTIR spectroscopy and the high-pressure stopped-flow methodology in combination with fast UV/Vis detection. Our data show high temperature stability and an increase in activity up to the unfolding temperatures of the enzymes. Remarkably, both enzymes reveal a very high pressure stability of their structure, even up to pressures of several kbars. Their high pressure-stability enables high enzymatic activity up to 2 kbar, which largely exceeds the pressure limit encountered by organisms in the deep sea and sub-seafloor on Earth.

Hydrogen bioelectrogeneration with pH-resilient and oxygen-tolerant cobalt apoenzyme-saccharide.

Hydrogenases are enzymes that catalyze the reversible conversion of protons to hydrogen gas, using earth-abundant metals such as nickel and/or iron. This characteristic makes them promising for sustainable energy applications, particularly in clean hydrogen production. However, their widespread use faces challenges, including a limited pH range and susceptibility to oxygen. In response to these issues, SacCoMyo is introduced as an artificial enzyme. SacCoMyo is designed by replacing the native metal in the myoglobin (Myo) scaffold with a hydroxocobalamin (Co) porphyrin core and complemented by a protective heteropolysaccharide-linked (Sac) shell. This engineered protein proves to be resilient, maintaining robust functionality even in acidic environments and preventing denaturation in a pH 1 electrolyte. The cobalt porphyrin core of SacCoMyo reduces the activation overpotential for hydrogen generation. A high turnover frequency of about 2400 H2 s-1 is demonstrated in the presence of molecular oxygen, showcasing its potential in biohydrogen production and its ability to overcome the limitations associated with natural hydrogenases.

The energy-converting hydrogenase Ech2 is important for the growth of the thermophilic acetogen Thermoanaerobacter kivui on ferredoxin-dependent substrates.

Thermoanaerobacter kivui is the thermophilic acetogenic bacterium with the highest temperature optimum (66°C) and with high growth rates on hydrogen (H2) plus carbon dioxide (CO2). The bioenergetic model suggests that its redox and energy metabolism depends on energy-converting hydrogenases (Ech). Its genome encodes two Echs, Ech1 and Ech2, as sole coupling sites for energy conservation during growth on H2 + CO2. During growth on other substrates, its redox activity, the (proton-gradient-coupled) oxidation of H2 may be essential to provide reduced ferredoxin (Fd) to the cell. While Ech activity has been demonstrated biochemically, the physiological function of both Ech's is unclear. Toward that, we deleted the complete gene cluster encoding Ech2. Surprisingly, the ech2 mutant grew as fast as the wild type on sugar substrates and H2 + CO2. Hence, Ech1 may be the essential enzyme for energy conservation, and either Ech1 or another enzyme may substitute for H2-dependent Fd reduction during growth on sugar substrates, putatively the H2-dependent CO2 reductase (HDCR). Growth on pyruvate and CO, substrates that are oxidized by Fd-dependent enzymes, was significantly impaired, but to a different extent. While ∆ech2 grew well on pyruvate after four transfers, ∆ech2 did not adapt to CO. Cell suspensions of ∆ech2 converted pyruvate to acetate, but no acetate was produced from CO. We analyzed the genome of five T. kivui strains adapted to CO. Strikingly, all strains carried mutations in the hycB3 subunit of HDCR. These mutations are obviously essential for the growth on CO but may inhibit its ability to utilize Fd as substrate. IMPORTANCE: Acetogens thrive by converting H2+CO2 to acetate. Under environmental conditions, this allows for only very little energy to be conserved (∆G'<-20 kJ mol-1). CO2 serves as a terminal electron acceptor in the ancient Wood-Ljungdahl pathway (WLP). Since the WLP is ATP neutral, energy conservation during growth on H2 + CO2 is dependent on the redox metabolism. Two types of acetogens can be distinguished, Rnf- and Ech-type. The function of both membrane-bound enzyme complexes is twofold-energy conversion and redox balancing. Ech couples the Fd-dependent reduction of protons to H2 to the formation of a proton gradient in the thermophilic bacterium Thermoanaerobacter kivui. This bacterium may be utilized in gas fermentation at high temperatures, due to very high conversion rates and the availability of genetic tools. The physiological function of an Ech hydrogenase in T. kivui was studied to contribute an understanding of its energy and redox metabolism, a prerequisite for future industrial applications.

Evidence the Isc iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis machinery is the source of iron for [NiFe]-cofactor biosynthesis in Escherichia coli.

[NiFe]-hydrogenases have a bimetallic NiFe(CN)2CO cofactor in their large, catalytic subunit. The 136 Da Fe(CN)2CO group of this cofactor is preassembled on a distinct HypC-HypD scaffold complex, but the intracellular source of the iron ion is unresolved. Native mass spectrometric analysis of HypCD complexes defined the [4Fe-4S] cluster associated with HypD and identified + 26 to 28 Da and + 136 Da modifications specifically associated with HypC. A HypCC2A variant without the essential conserved N-terminal cysteine residue dissociated from its complex with native HypD lacked all modifications. Native HypC dissociated from HypCD complexes isolated from Escherichia coli strains deleted for the iscS or iscU genes, encoding core components of the Isc iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis machinery, specifically lacked the + 136 Da modification, but this was retained on HypC from suf mutants. The presence or absence of the + 136 Da modification on the HypCD complex correlated with the hydrogenase enzyme activity profiles of the respective mutant strains. Notably, the [4Fe-4S] cluster on HypD was identified in all HypCD complexes analyzed. These results suggest that the iron of the Fe(CN)2CO group on HypCD derives from the Isc machinery, while either the Isc or the Suf machinery can deliver the [4Fe-4S] cluster to HypD.

Kinetic Modeling of the Reversible or Irreversible Electrochemical Responses of FeFe-Hydrogenases.

The enzyme FeFe-hydrogenase catalyzes H2 evolution and oxidation at an active site that consists of a [4Fe-4S] cluster bridged to a [Fe2(CO)3(CN)2(azadithiolate)] subsite. Previous investigations of its mechanism were mostly conducted on a few "prototypical" FeFe-hydrogenases, such as that from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii(Cr HydA1), but atypical hydrogenases have recently been characterized in an effort to explore the diversity of this class of enzymes. We aim at understanding why prototypical hydrogenases are active in either direction of the reaction in response to a small deviation from equilibrium, whereas the homologous enzyme from Thermoanaerobacter mathranii (Tam HydS) shows activity only under conditions of very high driving force, a behavior that was referred to as "irreversible catalysis". We follow up on previous spectroscopic studies and recent developments in the kinetic modeling of bidirectional reactions to investigate and compare the catalytic cycles of Cr HydA1 and Tam HydS under conditions of direct electron transfer with an electrode. We compare the hypothetical catalytic cycles described in the literature, and we show that the observed changes in catalytic activity as a function of potential, pH, and H2 concentration can be explained with the assumption that the same catalytic mechanism applies. This helps us identify which variations in properties of the catalytic intermediates give rise to the distinct "reversible" or "irreversible" catalytic behaviors.

Gold nanoparticles activate hydrogenase synthesis and improve heterotrophic growth of Ralstonia eutropha H16.

Ralstonia eutropha is a facultative chemolithoautotrophic aerobic bacterium that grows using organic substrates or H2 and CO2. Hydrogenases (Hyds) are synthesized under lithoautotrophic, or energy-limited heterotrophic conditions and are used in enzyme fuel cells (EFC) as anodic catalysts. The effects of chemically synthesized gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) on R. eutropha H16 growth, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) kinetics, and H2-oxidizing Hyd activity were investigated in this study. Atomic force microscopy showed that thin, plate-shaped Au-NPs were in the nanoscale range with an average size of 5.68 nm. Compared with growth in medium without Au-NPs (control), the presence of Au-NPs stimulated growth, and resulted in a decrease in ORP to negative values. H2-oxidizing activity was not detected in the absence of Au-NPs, but activity was significantly induced (12 U/g CDW) after 24 h of growth with 18 ng/ml, increasing a further 4-fold after 72 h of growth. The results demonstrate that Au-NPs primarily influence the membrane-bound Hyd. In contrast to R. eutropha, Au-NPs had a negligible or negative effect on the growth, Hyd activity, and H2 production of Escherichia coli. The findings of this study offer new perspectives for the production of oxygen-tolerant Hyds and the development of EFCs.

Photo-Electro-Biochemical H2 Production Using the Carbon Material-Based Cathode Combined with Genetically Engineered Escherichia coli Whole-Cell Biocatalysis.

Abio/bio hybrids, which incorporate biocatalysts that promote efficient and selective material conversions under mild conditions into existing catalytic reactions, have attracted considerable attention for developing new catalytic systems. This study constructed a H2 -forming biocathode based on a carbon material combined with whole-cell biocatalysis of genetically-engineered-hydrogenase-overproducing Escherichia coli for the photoelectrochemical water splitting for clean H2 production. Low-cost and abundant carbon materials are generally not suitable for H2 -forming cathode due to their high overpotential for proton reduction; however, the combination of the reduction of an organic electron mediator on the carbon electrode and the H2 formation with the reduced mediator by the redox enzyme hydrogenase provides a H2 -forming cathodic reaction comparable to that of the noble metal electrode. The present study demonstrates that the recombinant E. coli whole cell can be employed as a part of the H2 -forming biocathode system, and the biocathode system wired with TiO2 photoanode can be a photoelectrochemical water-splitting system without external voltage assistance under natural pH. The findings of this study expand the feasibility of applications of whole-cell biocatalysis and contribute to obtaining solar-to-chemical conversions by abio/bio hybrid systems, especially for low-cost, noble-metal-free, and clean H2 production.

A Dynamic Water Channel Affects O2 Stability in [FeFe]-Hydrogenases.

[FeFe]-hydrogenases are capable of reducing protons at a high rate. However, molecular oxygen (O2 ) induces the degradation of their catalytic cofactor, the H-cluster, which consists of a cubane [4Fe4S] subcluster (4FeH ) and a unique diiron moiety (2FeH ). Previous attempts to prevent O2 -induced damage have focused on enhancing the protein's sieving effect for O2 by blocking the hydrophobic gas channels that connect the protein surface and the 2FeH . In this study, we aimed to block an O2 diffusion pathway and shield 4FeH instead. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations identified a novel water channel (WH ) surrounding the H-cluster. As this hydrophilic path may be accessible for O2 molecules we applied site-directed mutagenesis targeting amino acids along WH in proximity to 4FeH to block O2 diffusion. Protein film electrochemistry experiments demonstrate increased O2 stabilities for variants G302S and S357T, and MD simulations based on high-resolution crystal structures confirmed an enhanced local sieving effect for O2 in the environment of the 4FeH in both cases. The results strongly suggest that, in wild type proteins, O2 diffuses from the 4FeH to the 2FeH . These results reveal new strategies for improving the O2 stability of [FeFe]-hydrogenases by focusing on the O2 diffusion network near the active site.

A novel hexameric NADP+ -reducing [FeFe] hydrogenase from Moorella thermoacetica.

Acetogenic bacteria such as the thermophilic anaerobic model organism Moorella thermoacetica reduce CO2 with H2 as a reductant via the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway (WLP). The enzymes of the WLP of M. thermoacetica require NADH, NADPH, and reduced ferredoxin as reductants. Whereas an electron-bifurcating ferredoxin- and NAD+ -reducing hydrogenase HydABC had been described, the enzyme that reduces NADP+ remained to be identified. A likely candidate is the HydABCDEF hydrogenase from M. thermoacetica. Genes encoding for the HydABCDEF hydrogenase are expressed during growth on glucose and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), an alternative electron acceptor in M. thermoacetica, whereas expression of the genes hydABC encoding for the electron-bifurcating hydrogenase is downregulated. Therefore, we have purified the hydrogenase from cells grown on glucose and DMSO to apparent homogeneity. The enzyme had six subunits encoded by hydABCDEF and contained 58 mol of iron and 1 mol of FMN. The enzyme reduced methyl viologen with H2 as reductant and of the physiological acceptors tested, only NADP+ was reduced. Electron bifurcation with pyridine nucleotides and ferredoxin was not observed. H2 -dependent NADP+ reduction was optimal at pH 8 and 60 °C; the specific activity was 8.5 U·mg-1 and the Km for NADP+ was 0.086 mm. Cell suspensions catalyzed H2 -dependent DMSO reduction, which is in line with the hypothesis that the NADP+ -reducing hydrogenase HydABCDEF is involved in electron transfer from H2 to DMSO.

Using directed evolution to improve hydrogen production in chimeric hydrogenases from algal species.

Algae generate hydrogen from sunlight and water utilizing high-energy electrons generated during photosynthesis. The amount of hydrogen produced in heterologous expression of the wild-type hydrogenase is currently insufficient for industrial applications. One approach to improve hydrogen yields is through directed evolution of the DNA of the native hydrogenase. Here, we created 113 chimeric algal hydrogenase gene variants derived from combining segments of three parent hydrogenases, two from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (CrHydA1 and CrHydA2) and one from Scenedesmus obliquus (HydA1). To generate chimeras, there were seven segments into which each of the parent hydrogenase genes was divided and recombined in a variety of combinations. The chimeric and parental hydrogenase sequences were cloned for heterologous expression in Escherichia coli, and 40 of the resultant enzymes expressed were assayed for H2 production. Chimeric clones that resulted in equal or greater production obtained with the cloned CrHydA1 parent hydrogenase were those comprised of CrHydA1 sequence in segments #1, 2, 3, and/or 4. These best-performing chimeras all contained one common region, segment #2, the part of the sequence known to contain important amino acids involved in proton transfer or hydrogen cluster coordination. The amino acid sequence distances among all chimeric clones to that of the CrHydA1 parent were determined, and the relationship between sequence distances and experimentally-derived H2 production was evaluated. An additional model determined the correlation between electrostatic potential energy surface area ratios and H2 production. The model yielded several algal mutants with predicted hydrogen productions in a range of two to three times that of the wild-type hydrogenase. The mutant data and the model can now be used to predict which specific mutant sequences may result in even higher hydrogen yields. Overall, results provide more precise details in planning future directed evolution to functionally improve algal hydrogenases.

Acyl and CO Ligands in the [Fe]-Hydrogenase Cofactor Scramble upon Photolysis.

[Fe]-hydrogenase harbors the iron-guanylylpyridinol (FeGP) cofactor, in which the Fe(II) complex contains acyl-carbon, pyridinol-nitrogen, cysteine-thiolate and two CO as ligands. Irradiation with UV-A/blue light decomposes the FeGP cofactor to a 6-carboxymethyl-4-guanylyl-2-pyridone (GP) and other components. Previous in vitro biosynthesis experiments indicated that the acyl- and CO-ligands in the FeGP cofactor can scramble, but whether scrambling occurred during biosynthesis or photolysis was unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the [18 O1 -carboxy]-group of GP is incorporated into the FeGP cofactor by in vitro biosynthesis. MS/MS analysis of the 18 O-labeled FeGP cofactor revealed that the produced [18 O1 ]-acyl group is not exchanged with a CO ligand of the cofactor, indicating that the acyl and CO ligands are scrambled during photolysis rather than biosynthesis, which ruled out any biosynthesis mechanisms allowing acyl/CO ligands scrambling. Time-resolved infrared spectroscopy indicated that an acyl-Fe(CO)3 intermediate is formed during photolysis, in which scrambling of the CO and acyl ligands can occur. This finding also suggests that the light-excited FeGP cofactor has a higher affinity for external CO. These results contribute to our understanding of the biosynthesis and photosensitive properties of this unique H2 -activating natural complex.

Effect of cadmium on the regulatory mechanism of steroidogenic pathway of Leydig cells during spermatogenesis.

Cadmium is a male reproductive toxicant that interacts with a variety of pathogenetic mechanisms. However, the effect of cadmium on the regulatory mechanism of the steroidogenic pathway of Leydig cells during spermatogenesis is still ambiguous. Light microscopy, Western blot, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction were performed to study the regulatory mechanism of the steroidogenic pathway of Leydig cells during spermatogenesis. The results indicated that in the control group, Leydig cells showed dynamic immunoreactivity and immunosignaling action with a strong positive significant secretion of 3ß-hydroxysteroid hydrogenase (3ß-HSD) in the interstitial compartment of the testis. Leydig cells showed a high active regulator mechanism of the steroidogenic pathway with increased the proteins and genes expression level of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), cytochrome P450 cholesterol (CYP11A1), cytochrome P450 cholesterol (CYP17A1), 3ß-hydroxysteroid hydrogenase (3ß-HSD) 17ß-hydroxysteroid hydrogenase (17ß-HSD), and androgen receptor (AR) that maintained the healthy and vigorous progressive motile spermatozoa. However, on treatment with cadmium, Leydig cells were irregularly dispersed in the interstitial compartment of the testis. Leydig cells showed reduced immunoreactivity and immunosignaling of 3ß-HSD protein. Meanwhile, cadmium impaired the regulatory mechanism of the steroidogenic process of the Leydig cells with reduced protein and gene expression levels of STAR, CYP11A1, CYP17A1, 3ß-HSD, 17ß-HSD, and AR in the testis. Additionally, treatment with cadmium impaired the serum LH, FSH, and testosterone levels in blood as compared to control. This study explores the hazardous effect of cadmium on the regulatory mechanism of the steroidogenic pathway of Leydig cells during spermatogenesis.

Carbon amendments in soil microcosms induce uneven response on H2 oxidation activity and microbial community composition.

High-affinity H2-oxidizing bacteria (HA-HOB) thriving in soil are responsible for the most important sink of atmospheric H2. Their activity increases with soil organic carbon content, but the incidence of different carbohydrate fractions on the process has received little attention. Here we tested the hypothesis that carbon amendments impact HA-HOB activity and diversity differentially depending on their recalcitrance and their concentration. Carbon sources (sucrose, starch, cellulose) and application doses (0, 0.1, 1, 3, 5% Ceq soildw-1) were manipulated in soil microcosms. Only 0.1% Ceq soildw-1 cellulose treatment stimulated the HA-HOB activity. Sucrose amendments induced the most significant changes, with an abatement of 50% activity at 1% Ceq soildw-1. This was accompanied with a loss of bacterial and fungal alpha diversity and a reduction of high-affinity group 1 h/5 [NiFe]-hydrogenase gene (hhyL) abundance. A quantitative classification framework was elaborated to assign carbon preference traits to 16S rRNA gene, ITS and hhyL genotypes. The response was uneven at the taxonomic level, making carbon preference a difficult trait to predict. Overall, the results suggest that HA-HOB activity is more susceptible to be stimulated by low doses of recalcitrant carbon, while labile carbon-rich environment is an unfavorable niche for HA-HOB, inducing catabolic repression of hydrogenase.

C-Cl Bond Activation at Rotated vs Unrotated Dinuclear Site Related to [FeFe]-Hydrogenases.

The novel dinuclear complex related to the [FeFe]-hydrogenases active site, [Fe2(µ-pdt)(κ2-dmpe)2(CO)2] (1), is highly reactive toward chlorinated compounds CHxCl4-x (x = 1, 2) affording selectively terminal or bridging chloro diiron isomers through a C-Cl bond activation. DFT calculations suggest a cooperative mechanism involving a formal concerted regioselective chloronium transfer depending on the unrotated or rotated conformation of two isomers of 1.

The Alga Uronema belkae Has Two Structural Types of [FeFe]-Hydrogenases with Different Biochemical Properties.

Several species of microalgae can convert light energy into molecular hydrogen (H2) by employing enzymes of early phylogenetic origin, [FeFe]-hydrogenases, coupled to the photosynthetic electron transport chain. Bacterial [FeFe]-hydrogenases consist of a conserved domain that harbors the active site cofactor, the H-domain, and an additional domain that binds electron-conducting FeS clusters, the F-domain. In contrast, most algal hydrogenases characterized so far have a structurally reduced, so-termed M1-type architecture, which consists only of the H-domain that interacts directly with photosynthetic ferredoxin PetF as an electron donor. To date, only a few algal species are known to contain bacterial-type [FeFe]-hydrogenases, and no M1-type enzymes have been identified in these species. Here, we show that the chlorophycean alga Uronema belkae possesses both bacterial-type and algal-type [FeFe]-hydrogenases. Both hydrogenase genes are transcribed, and the cells produce H2 under hypoxic conditions. The biochemical analyses show that the two enzymes show features typical for each of the two [FeFe]-hydrogenase types. Most notable in the physiological context is that the bacterial-type hydrogenase does not interact with PetF proteins, suggesting that the two enzymes are integrated differently into the alga's metabolism.