Neurodevelopmental outcome and early rehabilitation of premature babies - is it needed in the first 2 years of life?

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to evaluate the neurodevelopmental outcomes of extremely premature babies at the age of 2 years, and to determine whether rehabilitation was carried out during this period. An additional aim was to determine the relationship between the use of rehabilitation and the degree of prematurity, asphyxia, birth weight, and the result of brain ultrasound. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study included 87 premature babies born between 24-31 weeks of pregnancy. A rehabilitation specialist assessed the neurodevelopmental outcomes of the children aged 2 years. Based on the documentation, the frequency of rehabilitation and its dependence on prematurity, asphyxia, birth weight and ultrasound results were analyzed. RESULTS: Correct neurodevelopmental outcome in children aged 2 years was found in 57 (65%) children, of whom 40 (46%) did not undergo rehabilitation. Incorrect development was observed in a group of 30 children - 12 patients were diagnosed with CP (14%), and 18 (21%) had 'red flags' of development milestones, they underwent rehabilitation. There was no statistically significant relationship between the degree of prematurity, perinatal asphyxia, birth weight and rehabilitation in the first 2 years of life. Abnormal ultrasound results were more common in rehabilitated children (n = 25; 53%) than in children without rehabilitation (n = 10; 25%), p = 0.008. CONCLUSIONS: Correct neurodevelopmental outcome at the age of 2 reached two-thirds of extreme prematurities, most of which did not need rehabilitation during this period. According to the authors' knowledge, this is the first study to show the percentage of premature babies who in the first 2 years of life did not require rehabilitation and achieved normal development.

Smartphones and Text Messaging are Associated With Higher Parent Quality of Life Scores and Enrollment in Early Intervention After NICU Discharge.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of access to communication technology on caregiver quality of life, neurodevelopmental, and medical outcomes (eg, rehospitalization, emergency room visits, or surgeries) in preterm infants, and enrollment in public assistance programs. In this cross-sectional study, we surveyed families of preterm infants in a high-risk infant-follow-up clinic. We estimated associations of access to various modes of communication technology with outcomes, adjusting for sociodemographic and infant characteristics using linear and unconditional logistic regression. Access to email, text messaging, and smartphones was associated with higher quality of life scores on the Multicultural Quality of Life Index, and email and smartphone access was significantly associated with increased enrollment in early intervention. Evaluating smartphone and email access on neonatal intensive care unit discharge is important when considering enrollment in community programs and caregiver quality of life.

A whole new world: a qualitative investigation of parents' experiences in transitioning their preterm child with cerebral palsy to developmental/rehabilitation services.

BACKGROUND: Parents' experiences transitioning their children from neonatal to developmental/rehabilitation services (DRS) are unknown. METHODS: A qualitative descriptive approach was used, including interviews with 18 parents (13 mothers and 5 fathers) of children born preterm and diagnosed with cerebral palsy (CP), located in a large urban center in Canada. Interview data underwent thematic analysis. RESULTS: Parents' experiences with transition to DRS were a whole new world with three key themes: Wanting to know what to expect, feeling supported in their transition, and getting there emotionally and physically. Transition broke an emotional bond with neonatal services while parents were simultaneously entering DRS, experiencing their child's CP diagnosis, and reliving prior emotional trauma. CONCLUSIONS: The findings reveal a cumulative emotional burden for parents in the first 3 years of life; a known critical period for parenting and early childhood development. Early transition interventions should consider including enhanced supports and services for parents.

Effects of Oral Stimulation Intervention in Newborn Babies with Cri du Chat Syndrome: Single-Subject Research Design.

The purpose of this study is to treat dysphagia in a newborn baby with cri du chat syndrome using an oral stimulation intervention and to examine its effects. The subject of this study was a baby born 2 weeks prematurely. Since birth, his oxygen saturation (SaO2) decreased while feeding, and he had difficulty with mouth feeding. Thus, an NG feeding tube was inserted, and dysphagia treatment was initiated on the sixth day after birth. A baseline phase and an intervention phase were performed using an AB design. The oral stimulation intervention was not performed in the baseline phase, as only nonnutritive sucking training using a rubber pacifier was used during the baseline phase. During the intervention phase, nonnutritive sucking training and oral stimulation intervention were simultaneously conducted. After the intervention period, daily oral milk intake and intake per feeding of the subject noticeably increased. The oxygen saturation while feeding rose over 90% on average, and the baby did not present with hypoxia. The oral stimulation intervention provided prior to feeding resulted in highly positive effects, including induced normal development of the baby, stimulation of his transition from the NG feeding tube to bottle feeding, increased oxygen saturation, and a shortened hospital stay.

Use of a Midliner Positioning System for Prevention of Dolichocephaly in Preterm Infants.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine effectiveness of a midliner positioning system (MPS, Tortle Midliner) for preventing dolichocephaly. METHODS: This was a nonrandomized, prospective study of 30 premature infants (study cohort, SC) using an MPS compared with a retrospective study cohort (RSC) of 65 infants who received standard of care intervention. RESULTS: RSC baseline cranial index (CI) of 80% and final CI of 77% significantly decreased over an average 5.5 weeks (P < .0001). The SC baseline CI and the final CI were both 79% over an average 5.7 weeks, indicating no significant difference between CI measures (P = .6). Gestational age, birth weight, reflux, time on continuous positive airway pressure, and time in a supine position were not associated with dolichocephaly. CONCLUSIONS: The SC developed less cranial molding (ie, had greater CI), compared with the RSC. A larger randomized study is needed to recommend routine use of MPS for prevention and/or treatment of cranial molding in premature infants.

Patterns of everyday functioning in preschool children born preterm and at term.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Children born preterm are at risk of neonatal complications but the long-term consequences for everyday functioning is not well known. The study aimed to identify patterns of everyday functioning in preschool children born preterm and at term in relation to perinatal data, neonatal risk factors, behaviour, and socioeconomic status. Registry data and data from parent rated questionnaires were collected for 331 children. METHOD: A person-oriented approach with a cluster analysis was used. RESULTS: A seven cluster solution explained 65.91% of the variance. Most children (n=232) showed patterns of strong everyday functioning. A minority of the children (n=99), showed diverse patterns of weak everyday functioning. Perinatal characteristics, neonatal risk factors and socio-economics did not predict cluster group membership. Children born preterm were represented in all clusters. CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS: Most preschool children are perceived by their parents with strong everyday functioning despite being born preterm. However small groups of children are, for various reasons, perceived with weak functioning, but preterm birth is not the sole contributor to patterns of weak everyday functioning. More critical for all children's everyday functioning is probably the interaction between individual factors, behavioural factors and contextual factors. To gain a broader understanding of children's everyday functioning. Child Health Services need to systematically consider aspects of body function, activity and in addition participation and environmental aspects.

Bilateral globus pallidus internus deep brain stimulation for dyskinetic cerebral palsy supports success of cochlear implantation in a 5-year old ex-24 week preterm twin with absent cerebellar hemispheres.

BACKGROUND: Early onset dystonia (dyskinesia) and deafness in childhood pose significant challenges for children and carers and are the cause of multiple disability. It is particularly tragic when the child cannot make use of early cochlear implantation (CI) technology to relieve deafness and improve language and communication, because severe cervical and truncal dystonia brushes off the magnetic amplifier behind the ears. Bilateral globus pallidus internus (GPi) deep brain stimulation (DBS) neuromodulation can reduce dyskinesia, thus supporting CI neuromodulation success. METHODS: We describe the importance of the order of dual neuromodulation surgery for dystonia and deafness. First with bilateral GPi DBS using a rechargeable ACTIVA-RC neurostimulator followed 5 months later by unilateral CI with a Harmony (BTE) Advanced Bionics Hi Res 90 K cochlear device. This double neuromodulation was performed in series in a 12.5 kg 5 year-old ex-24 week gestation-born twin without a cerebellum. RESULTS: Relief of dyskinesia enabled continuous use of the CI amplifier. Language understanding and communication improved. Dystonic storms abated. Tolerance of sitting increased with emergence of manual function. Status dystonicus ensued 10 days after ACTIVA-RC removal for infection-erosion at 3 years and 10 months. He required intensive care and DBS re-implantation 3 weeks later together with 8 months of hospital care. Today he is virtually back to the level of functioning before the DBS removal in 2012 and background medication continues to be slowly weaned. CONCLUSION: This case illustrates that early neuromodulation with DBS for dystonic cerebral palsy followed by CI for deafness is beneficial. Both should be considered early i.e. under the age of five years. The DBS should precede the CI to maximise dystonia reduction and thus benefits from CI. This requires close working between the paediatric DBS and CI services.

Interventions to improve gross motor performance in children with neurodevelopmental disorders: a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Gross motor skills are fundamental to childhood development. The effectiveness of current physical therapy options for children with mild to moderate gross motor disorders is unknown. The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature to investigate the effectiveness of conservative interventions to improve gross motor performance in children with a range of neurodevelopmental disorders. METHODS: A systematic review with meta-analysis was conducted. MEDLINE, EMBASE, AMED, CINAHL, PsycINFO, PEDro, Cochrane Collaboration, Google Scholar databases and clinical trial registries were searched. Published randomised controlled trials including children 3 to ≤18 years with (i) Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) or Cerebral Palsy (CP) (Gross Motor Function Classification System Level 1) or Developmental Delay or Minimal Acquired Brain Injury or Prematurity (<30 weeks gestational age) or Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders; and (ii) receiving non-pharmacological or non-surgical interventions from a health professional and (iii) gross motor outcomes obtained using a standardised assessment tool. Meta-analysis was performed to determine the pooled effect of intervention on gross motor function. Methodological quality and strength of meta-analysis recommendations were evaluated using PEDro and the GRADE approach respectively. RESULTS: Of 2513 papers, 9 met inclusion criteria including children with CP (n = 2) or DCD (n = 7) receiving 11 different interventions. Only two of 9 trials showed an effect for treatment. Using the least conservative trial outcomes a large beneficial effect of intervention was shown (SMD:-0.8; 95% CI:-1.1 to -0.5) with "very low quality" GRADE ratings. Using the most conservative trial outcomes there is no treatment effect (SMD:-0.1; 95% CI:-0.3 to 0.2) with "low quality" GRADE ratings. Study limitations included the small number and poor quality of the available trials. CONCLUSION: Although we found that some interventions with a task-orientated framework can improve gross motor outcomes in children with DCD or CP, these findings are limited by the very low quality of the available evidence. High quality intervention trials are urgently needed.

Resuscitation intensity at birth is associated with changes in brain metabolic development in preterm neonates.

INTRODUCTION: Intensive resuscitation at birth has been linked to intraventricular haemorrhage (IVH) in the preterm neonate. However, the impact of less intensive resuscitation on more subtle alterations in brain metabolic development is largely unknown. Our objective was to determine the relationship between the intensity of neonatal resuscitation following preterm birth on brain metabolic development. METHODS: One hundred thirty-three very preterm-born neonates (median gestational age [GA] 27 ± 2 weeks) underwent MR spectroscopic imaging early in life (median postmenstrual age 32 weeks) and again at term-equivalent age (median 40 weeks). Severity of white matter injury, IVH and cerebellar haemorrhage on magnetic resonance imaging were scored. Ratios of N-acetylaspartate (NAA) and lactate to choline (Cho) were calculated in eight regions of interest and were assessed in relation to intensiveness of resuscitation strategy (bag and mask, continuous positive airway pressure [CPAP], intubation, cardiopulmonary resuscitation [CPR]). RESULTS: Within the first hour of life, 14 newborns had no intervention, 3 received bag and mask, 30 had CPAP, 79 were intubated and 7 had CPR. Resuscitated infants were more likely to have IVH (p = 0.02). More intensive resuscitation was associated with decreased NAA/Cho maturation (p < 0.001, adjusting for birth GA). Metabolic development was similar in neonates requiring CPAP in comparison to those receiving no intervention. The change in lactate/Cho did not differ across resuscitation categories (p = 0.8). CONCLUSIONS: Intensity of resuscitation at birth is related to changes in metabolic brain development from early in life to term-equivalent age. Results suggest that preventing the need for intensive neonatal resuscitation may provide an opportunity to improve brain development in preterm neonates.

Effects of sensitive parenting on the academic resilience of very preterm and very low birth weight adolescents.

PURPOSE: Although sensitive and cognitively stimulating parenting is a powerful predictor of school success, it may not protect against increased neonatal risk resulting from underlying neurological damage. METHODS: A total of 314 very preterm/very low birth weight (VP/VLBW) and 338 term control children were studied from birth to age 13 years. Socioeconomic status was examined at birth. Neurological and physical impairment was assessed at age 20 months, and sensitive and cognitively stimulating parenting at age 6 years. School success was measured from 6 to 13 years of age. RESULTS: Very preterm/very low birth weight children had lower school success between 6 and 13 years, after statistically controlling for child disability and socioeconomic status. Cognitively stimulating parenting promoted all children's school success whereas highly sensitive parenting at age 6 years partly protected against the adverse effects of VP/VLBW birth on academic outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Very preterm/very low birth weight children's school success to age 13 years may be partly protected with sensitive parenting in middle childhood, despite the neurodevelopmental impairments associated with VP/VLBW birth. This suggests potential avenues for interventions for children born at high neonatal risk.

Evidence for therapeutic intervention in the prevention of cerebral palsy: hope from animal model research.

Knowledge translation, as defined by the Canadian Institute of Health Research, is defined as the exchange, synthesis, and ethically sound application of knowledge--within a complex system of interactions among researchers and users--to accelerate the capture of the benefits of research through improved health, more effective services and products, and a strengthened healthcare system. The requirement for this to occur lies in the ability to continue to determine mechanistic actions at the molecular level, to understand how they fit at the in vitro and in vivo levels, and for disease states, to determine their safety, efficacy, and long-term potential at the preclinical animal model level. In this regard, particularly as it relates to long-term disabilities such as cerebral palsy that begin in utero, but only express their full effect in adulthood, animal models must be used to understand and rapidly evaluate mechanisms of injury and therapeutic interventions. In this review, we hope to provide the reader with a background of animal data upon which therapeutic interventions for the prevention and treatment of cerebral palsy, benefit this community, and increasingly do so in the future.

Treatment of neonatal abstinence syndrome in preterm and term infants.

OBJECTIVE: Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) is treated with a variety of drug preparations. With the optional treatment of NAS with chloral hydrate, phenobarbital or morphine the cumulative drug consumption of the mentioned drugs, the length of hospital stay and treatment duration was evaluated in preterm and term neonates. METHODS: Retrospective, uncontrolled study which evaluates different therapies of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) in preterm and term neonates. RESULTS: During the past 16 years data were obtained from medical records of 51 neonates with NAS; 9 preterm and 35 term neonates were evaluated and 7 were excluded because of incomplete data sets. 31 (72.1%) received a pharmacological treatment (6 preterm and 25 term neonates). Treatment started at 4.3 [3.3-5.3] d. Mean duration of treatment was 11.7 [6.6-16.7] d. In our study chloral hydrate (ch) and phenobarbital (pb) were first line medication escalated by the morphine (mp) solution. Mean cumulative dosage of ch was 643.5 [260.3-1 026.7] mg, of pb 53.2 [19.7-86.8] mg and of mp 4.22 [0-8.99] mg. CONCLUSION: Our study group showed similar treatment duration and length of hospital stay compared to other studies. The cumulative dose of mp was lower compared to most studies. This benefit resulted at the expense of a further medication with pb and ch. However, 6 of 9 preterm neonates needed significantly less pharmacological therapy compared to term neonates indicating less susceptibility of immature brain to abstinence of maternalo-pioids.

Análisis de los casos nuevos de atención temprana atendidos en Navarra en el Centro Atención Temprana en el año 2006 / Analysis of the new cases of early assistance in Navarra in the Early Assistance Care Center in 2006

Introducción. Se analizan los casos nuevos valorados por el equipo de valoración de atención temprana de la Agencia Navarra para la Dependencia en el año 2006. Material y métodos. Los datos de la historia clínica se introducen en un archivo de base de datos Access®. Los datos de esta publicación se extraen de dicha base de datos. Resultados. La edad media de los 117 niños en el momento de la primera valoración fueron 15 meses y la duración media de estancia en el programa fueron 18 meses. Los diagnósticos más frecuentes fueron: retraso madurativo: 35 casos, prematuridad: 31 casos, alteración del lenguaje (incluye fisura palatina e hipoacusia): 26 casos y alteración motora: 25 casos. Conclusiones. La detección temprana de los niños con alteración en el desarrollo o con riesgo de tenerlo, constituye un requisito imprescindible para la iniciación precoz de la intervención. Es fundamental la coordinación interdepartamental para agilizar los mecanismos de derivación y permitir la valoración en el programa de atención temprana lo antes posible (AU)

Introduction. We analyze the new cases evaluated by the early assistance team in the Navarra Agency for dependency during the year 2006. Material and methods. The clinical history data are introduced into an Access database file. We have obtained the data for this article from that file. Results. A total of 117 children (average age at first evaluation 15 months) with average stay in the program of 18 months were evaluated. The most frequent diagnoses were: developmental delay: 35 cases, prematurity: 31 cases, speech disorder (including palatine fissure and hearing loss): 26 cases, motor alteration: 25 cases. Conclusions. Early detection of children with developmental alterations or at risk of developing them is an essential requirement for early initiation of the intervention. Interdepartmental-coordination is essential to speed up referral mechanisms and enable evaluation as quickly as possible in the early assistance program (AU)

Cardiorespiratory response during physical therapist intervention for infants and young children with chronic respiratory insufficiency.

PURPOSE: To document physical therapist intervention activities and cardiorespiratory response for young children with chronic respiratory insufficiency. METHODS: Twelve children born prematurely, 6 to 30 months chronological age and admitted to inpatient pulmonary rehabilitation for oxygen and/or ventilation weaning, were included. During 3 intervention sessions, a second physical therapist recorded intervention activity and heart rate (HR), oxygen saturation (SaO2), and respiratory rate. Total time and median HR, SaO2, and respiratory rate for each activity were calculated. An analysis of variance was used to compare HR and SaO2 across activity based on intersession reliability. RESULTS: Sitting activities were most frequent and prone least frequent. Median cardiorespiratory measures were within reference standards for age. No adverse effects were seen during intervention and no significant difference was found in HR and SaO2 among intervention activities. CONCLUSION: Young children with chronic respiratory insufficiency are able to tolerate intervention with close monitoring by the physical therapist.

Intervention in the first weeks of life for infants born late preterm: a case series.

Infants born late preterm (34-36 weeks of gestation) account for 350 000 US births per year, are at risk for developmental delays, and are rarely included in intervention studies. PURPOSE: To describe a novel parent-delivered movement intervention program for very young infants and outcomes following intervention and to evaluate the feasibility of using a comprehensive set of outcome measures. SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS: Two infants born late preterm received intervention from 0.5 to 2.0 months of adjusted age. Development, postural control, reaching, and object exploration assessments were completed at 3 time points. The intervention was well tolerated by the family. Improvements in developmental outcomes, postural control, and object exploration are presented. STATEMENT OF CONCLUSION: Very early movement experience provided daily by parents may improve development. In combination, norm-referenced and behavioral measures appear sensitive to changes in infant behaviors.

Perinatal events and motor performance of children born with ELBW and nondisabled.

PURPOSE: To explore the relationship between perinatal variables and motor performance in children who were born with extremely low birth weight (ELBW) and were nondisabled at 1 and 4 years. METHODS: Children without neurological or cognitive impairment (n = 48) born weighing less than 1000 g between 1992 and 1994 were assessed at 1 and 4 years corrected age using the Neurosensory Motor Developmental Assessment (NSMDA). Scores were used to categorize motor performance as normal or abnormal. RESULTS: Chronic lung disease (CLD) of prematurity, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), and patent ductus arteriosus were associated with NSMDA category at 1 year. Chronic lung disease, male gender, and NEC were associated with NSMDA category at 4 years. Multiple regression analyses revealed that CLD and NEC were independently associated with abnormal motor outcomes at 1 year. CONCLUSIONS: Early assessment and motor therapy is recommended for infants with CLD, because of its effect on motor performance in this otherwise healthy group of children born with ELBW.

Instituting parent education practices in the neonatal intensive care unit: an administrative case report of practice evaluation and statewide action.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Infants born preterm are at high risk of developmental disabilities and benefit from early developmental intervention programs. Physical therapists with neonatal expertise are ideally suited to educate parents about ways to support their infant's development in the first months of life. However, administrative policies are needed to support the therapist in providing adequate parent education in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). This administrative case report describes the process used by a team of neonatal therapists to evaluate clinical practice, determine the need for change, and develop and implement a new parent education program in the NICU. CASE DESCRIPTION: Physical therapy parent education practices were evaluated in an academic medical center with a 36-bed, level-3 NICU. Physical therapists with neonatal expertise covered multiple units within the hospital each day. A series of focus groups, a small descriptive study, and staff discussion were used to evaluate parent education practices in this academic medical center. A new parent education program was developed based on data collected and literature to improve clinical care. OUTCOMES: The new parent education model was implemented over the course of several months using overlapping initiatives. Administrative support for the change was developed through collaboration, open communication, and presentation of clinical data. In addition, this hospital-based program contributed to the development of a statewide initiative to educate parents of preterm infants about the importance of supporting development in the first months of life. DISCUSSION: A collaborative and data-driven approach to evaluating parent education practices supported the development of a new parent education practice while acknowledging the need to meet staff productivity standards and provide excellent care throughout the hospital.

Outcomes of preterm infants: morbidity replaces mortality.

Over the last 50 years in the United States a rising preterm birth rate, a progressive decrease in preterm mortality, and a lowering of the limit of viability have made preterm birth a significant public health problem. Neuromaturation, the functional development of the central nervous system (CNS), is a dynamic process that promotes and shapes CNS structural development. This article reviews preterm outcomes, recognizing that multiple factors influence neuromaturation and lead to a range of neurodevelopmental disabilities, dysfunctions, and altered CNS processing. Ways to protect preterm infants and support their growth and development in and beyond intensive care are examined.

Retrasos lingüísticos y cognitivos en niños prematuros extremos a los 2 años: ¿retrasos generales o específicos? / Linguistic and cognitive delays in very preterm infants at 2 years: general or specific delays?

Este estudio determinó si los niños prematuros extremos sin lesión cerebral manifiesta mostraban unas habilidades lingüísticas menores y una tasa de riesgo mayor a los 2 años en comparación con los niños nacidos a término y los valores normativos. También pretendía identificar si el riesgo de retraso léxico estaba asociado con la ausencia de combinación de palabras y deficiencia cognitiva y qué factores de riesgo biológicos y sociales se asociaban a ellos. Se examinó a 150 niños prematuros y 44 niños nacidos a término, sin lesión cerebral manifiesta; se proporcionó a sus padres el formulario italiano del MB-CDI a fin de evaluar la producción léxica y gramatical. Se evaluó el desarrollo cognitivo de los prematuros mediante las escalas de Griffiths. Los niños prematuros mostraron unas habilidades menores en el léxico (producción de palabras, aparición de producción descontextualizada) y la gramática (uso de morfología ligada a verbos) y una mayor tasa de riesgo de retraso léxico y/o ausencia de combinación de palabras que los niños nacidos a término. Concretamente, el 18 % de los niños prematuros mostraron un retraso generalizado en las competencias lingüísticas y cognitivas; el 16 %, un retraso específico en el lenguaje, y el 4 %, una deficiencia cognitiva específica. Resultaron ser factores de predicción significativos la displasia broncopulmonar y el sexo masculino para el riesgo de retraso léxico, el sexo masculino para la ausencia de combinación de palabras y la displasia broncopulmonar para la deficiencia cognitiva. Los niños prematuros extremos muestran un factor de riesgo mayor para el retraso lingüístico a los 2 años, lo que señala que en algunos niños esta parece ser la expresión de una deficiencia cognitiva general, mientras que en otros, es específica para el lenguaje. Los factores de riesgo asociados con el nacimiento pretérmino deberían tenerse también en cuenta para una identificación precoz del riesgo de retraso lingüístico y cognitivo (AU)

This study determined whether very preterm infants, without frank cerebral damage, exhibited lower linguistic abilities and a higher rate of risk at 2 years as compared to full-term infants and normative values. It also aimed to identify whether risk of lexical delay was associated with absence of word combination and cognitive impairment and which biological and social risk factors were associated with them. One hundred fifty preterms and 44 full terms, without frank cerebral damage, were examined by administering to their parents the Italian form of the MB-CDI in order to assess lexical and grammar production. Preterms' cognitive development was evaluated through the Griffiths Scales. Preterms exhibited lower abilities in lexicon (word production, emergence of decontextualized production) and grammar (use of bounded morphology in verbs) and a higher rate of risk for lexical delay and/or absence of word combination than full terms. In detail, 18 % of preterms showed generalized delay in linguistic and cognitive competencies, 16 % a specific delay in language, and 4 % a specific cognitive impairment. Significant predictors were broncho-pulmonary dysplasia and male gender for risk of lexical delay, male gender for absence of word combination, and broncho-pulmonary dysplasia for cognitive impairment. Very preterm infants exhibit a higher risk for linguistic delay at 2 years, suggesting that in some infants this appears the expression of a general cognitive impairment, while in others it is specific for language. Risk factors associated to preterm birth should also be considered for an early identification of risk for linguistic and cognitive delay (AU)