Emergence of locomotor behaviors: Associations with infant characteristics, developmental status, parental beliefs, and practices in typically developing Brazilian infants aged 5 to 15 months.

Independent locomotion provides autonomy for infants, drastically changing their relationship with their surroundings. From a dynamic systems perspective, the interaction between environment, tasks, and organismic constraints leads to the emergence of new behaviors over time. This 6-month longitudinal study aimed to verify associations between the emergence of locomotor behaviors and infants' characteristics, developmental status, parental beliefs, and practices. This observational study remotely assessed 37 full-term Brazilian infants aged 5 to 15 months, divided into two groups (G1: 5 to 11 months, n = 19; and G2: 9 to 15 months, n = 18). The motor developmental status of infants was closely associated with the emergence of behaviors (p < 0.05). Infants in G2 whose parents agreed with the statement "In typically developing infants, motor development occurs naturally and there is no need to actively stimulate it" started to walk later than those whose parents disagreed. Infants whose parents expected them to walk around 10-11 months walked earlier compared to those expected to walk after 11 months (G2, p = 0.011). Infants in G2 with a high frequency of staying in the supine position started to walk, both with and without support, later than those with a low frequency (p < 0.05). For infants in G1 with a high frequency of playing on the floor, locomotion (p = 0.041) and crawling on hands-and-knees (p = 0.007) started sooner compared to those with a low frequency. Staying in the cradle more frequently was related to a later emergence of supported walk (p = 0.046) among infants in G2. The emergence of locomotor behaviors is associated with motor developmental status, the surfaces where the infant plays, and body position. Parental beliefs and expectations influence how infants are stimulated and, consequently, the emergence of independent walking.

Stress and self-regulation behaviors in preterm neonates hospitalized at open-bay and single-family room Neonatal Intensive Care Unit.

The Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) could be a risk factor for the development of preterm neonates due to the stressful procedures they undergo. Stress-related behaviors must be managed through environmental strategies that support regulating the neonates' biobehavioural system to minimize the negative impact on their development. The study aimed to compare the NICU environment's stressful procedures and developmental care strategies and the stress and self-regulation behaviors of preterm neonates in groups differentiated by the NICU environmental design. The sample comprised 20 preterm neonates hospitalized in a NICU with an open-bay model (OB NICU) and 20 preterm neonates hospitalized in a single-family room model (SFR NICU). The stressful procedures were assessed by the Neonatal Infant Stressor Scale (NISS). The developmental care strategies and the preterm neonates' stress and self-regulation behaviors were assessed using a structured observational protocol. The between-group comparison was performed by the Mann-Whitney test, and the significance level was set at 5%. Both NICUs had similar stressful procedures and developmental care approaches. However, the preterm neonates hospitalized in the SFR NICU exhibited significantly fewer total stress behaviors, and specifically in the motor system, compared to those in the OB NICU. Additionally, the preterm neonates hospitalized in the SFR NICU exhibited significantly more total self-regulation behaviors, and specifically in the behavioral state system, compared to those in the OB NICU. The findings showed that the single-family room NICU model was consistent with the environmental protection of biobehavioural regulation in preterm neonates hospitalized in the NICU.

Effect of prematurity and temperament on the mother-infant interaction / Efeito da prematuridade e temperamento na interação mãe-bebê / Efecto de la prematurez y el temperamento en la interacción madre-bebé

Abstract We evaluated the effect of prematurity and the infant's temperament on the mother-infant behaviors in the Face-to-Face Still-Face Paradigm (FFSF). The study included 75 mothers and their infants (37 preterm and 38 term) between three and four months of age (corrected age for preterm infants). The mothers responded to a perception scale of the infants' temperament and the dyads were observed in a structured condition (FFSF). The FFSF Paradigm, divided into three episodes, made it possible to analyze the behaviors of: Positive Social Orientation, Negative Social Orientation and Self-comfort. The averages recorded for these categories were analyzed in a Multivariate ANOVA (factors: prematurity and temperament). Temperament had more effect on maternal and infant behaviors, suggesting that this factor may influence mother-infant interaction. The results can guide possible interventions with families. (AU)

Resumo Buscou-se avaliar o efeito da prematuridade e do tipo de temperamento do bebê sobre a interação mãe-bebê por meio do Paradigma do Face-to-Face Still-Face (FFSF). Participaram do estudo 75 mães e seus bebês (37 pré-termo e 38 a termo), entre três a quatro meses de vida (idade corrigida para bebês pré-termo). As mães responderam a uma escala de percepção do temperamento dos bebês e as díades foram filmadas em condição estruturada (FFSF). A filmagem, dividida em três episódios, possibilitou a análise de comportamentos de: Orientação Social Positiva, Orientação Social Negativa e Autoconforto. As médias registradas para essas categorias foram submetidas à Anova Multivariada (fatores: prematuridade e temperamento). O temperamento apresentou mais efeito sobre os comportamentos maternos e dos bebês, sugerindo que esse fator pode influenciar a interação diádica. Os resultados podem nortear possíveis intervenções junto às famílias.(AU)

Resumen Se buscó evaluar el efecto de la prematuridad y el tipo de temperamento del bebé en la interacción madre-bebé a través del Paradigma Face-to-Face Still-Face (FFSF). En el estudio participaron 75 madres y sus bebés (37 prematuros y 38 a término), con edades comprendidas entre los tres y los cuatro meses (edad corregida para bebés prematuros). Las madres respondieron a una escala de percepción del temperamento de los bebés y las díadas fueron filmadas en una condición estructurada (FFSF). El rodaje, dividido en tres episodios, permitió analizar los comportamientos de: Orientación Social Positiva, Orientación Social Negativa y Autoconfort. Los promedios registrados para estas categorías fueron sometidos al ANOVA Multivariado (factores: prematuridad y temperamento). El temperamento tuvo más efecto en los comportamientos maternos e infantiles, lo que sugiere que este factor puede influir en la interacción diádica. Los resultados pueden orientar posibles intervenciones con las familias. (AU)

Reaching skills in six-month-old infants at environmental and biological risk.

OBJECTIVES: To assess kinematic parameters and proximal and distal reaching adjustments of infants at biological or environmental risk and compare with reaching performance of six-month-old full-term infants without known risk factors. METHODS: This blinded cross-sectional study included 62 infants at six months of age divided into three independent groups: Group with no known risk factor (NRF), 28 full-terms with no risk factors; Low SES group (LSES):19 full-terms classified as low socioeconomic status and no biological risk; Very preterm group (VPT), 15 very preterm infants at six months corrected age and no environmental risk. Infants were placed in a reclined baby chair at 45°, and a malleable and unfamiliar object was presented to the infant at 5-second intervals to elicit reaching movements. RESULTS: Infants from LSES presented reaching duration (p = 0.032, Cohen's f = 0.349) and movement unit (p = 0.033, Cohen's f = 0.351) significantly higher than VPT group. Horizontal hand orientation was moderately associated with infants at environmental risk (p = 0.031; Cramer's V = 0.30). CONCLUSION: Infants of low socioeconomic status perform less functional reaching movements than very preterm infants at six months corrected age. Socioeconomic status may impact more on reaching skills than biological risk. Given the importance of reaching for infant development, low-cost public health strategies are needed to identify possible delays.

Social and individual factors modulate parent-infant interactions: Lessons from free play sessions in an Argentine sample.

In this study, we aimed to explore the associations between socioeconomic status (SES) (i.e., parents' education and occupation, quality of the home and overcrowding), temperament styles (i.e., surgency, negative emotionality and regulatory capacity) and early dyadic and triadic nonverbal communication behaviors. We recruited 60 mother-infant dyads (mean age: 10.89 months, range: 9-13 months) low-to-mid SES, and assessed the duration of their communication behaviors using the Bakeman and Adamson (1984); SES was measured using INDEC Scale (2001), and temperament was assessed using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised Very Short Form (IBQ-R VSF, Putnam et al., 2014). Results showed that SES and their subdimensions were positively associated with passive, coordinated joint engagement (coordinated attention to person and object) and surgency, and negative with infant passive observation. Also, there were positive correlations between negative emotionality and unengaged attention behavior. We conclude that SES contributed to parent-infant interactions and temperament style from early months of life. We interpret these findings in relation to early intervention approaches aimed at promoting cognitive and social development.

The influence of maternal anxiety and depression symptoms on fNIRS brain responses to emotional faces in 5- and 7-month-old infants.

Greater relative right (versus left) frontal cortical activation to emotional faces as measured with alpha power in the electroencephalogram (EEG), has been considered a promising neural marker of increased vulnerability to psychopathology and emotional disorders. We set out to explore multichannel fNIRS as a tool to investigate infants' frontal asymmetry responses (hypothesizing greater right versus left frontal cortex activation) to emotional faces as influenced by maternal anxiety and depression symptoms during the postnatal period. We also explored activation differences in fronto-temporal regions associated with facial emotion processing. Ninety-one typically developing 5- and 7-month-old infants were shown photographs of women portraying happy, fearful and angry expressions. Hemodynamic brain responses were analyzed over two frontopolar and seven bilateral cortical regions subdivided into frontal, temporal and parietal areas, defined by age-appropriate MRI templates. Infants of mothers reporting higher negative affect had greater oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb) activation across all emotions over the left inferior frontal gyrus, a region implicated in emotional communication. Follow-up analyses indicated that associations were driven by maternal depression, but not anxiety symptoms. Overall, we found no support for greater right versus left frontal cortex activation in association with maternal negative affect. Findings point to the potential utility of fNIRS as a method for identifying altered neural substrates associated with exposure to maternal depression in infancy.

Coconstrução do apego no primeiro semestre de vida: o papel do outro nessa constituição / Co-construction of attachment in the first semester of life: the role of the other in this constitution / Co-construction de l'attachement au premier semestre de la vie: le rôle de l'autre dans cette constitution / Coconstrucción del apego en el primer semestre de vida: el papel del otro en esta constitución

Resumo A sobrevida do bebê humano é possibilitada pelo sistema de apego, na medida em que ele busca proximidade, emitindo comportamentos mediadores em direção a uma figura que lhe proporciona segurança. Reflexões provindas da existência de uma intersubjetividade inata e evidências de habilidades mais refinadas do que se conhecia à época da formulação da teoria de Bowlby levaram à hipótese de que o comportamento de apego pode ser observado antes do proposto por esse autor. Empreendeu-se um estudo de caso, em que se analisaram videogravações do primeiro semestre de vida de Marina. Selecionaram-se e analisaram-se microgeneticamente episódios de comportamento diferencial do bebê com seus cuidadores antes dos seis meses de idade; e mapearam-se os comportamentos mediadores com cada cuidador. O comportamento diferencial com uma figura discriminada foi visualizado já aos três meses de vida. Discutiram-se os processos dialógicos e culturais que repercutiram na seleção da mãe como figura de apego.

Abstract The survival of a human baby is enabled by the attachment behavioral system, as babies seek proximity, directing attachment mediator behaviors toward a figure who provides security. Reflections from the existence of a primary intersubjectivity and evidence of more refined abilities than what was known at the time in which Bowlby formulated this theory conducted us to the hypothesis that attachment is perceived before the period he proposed. We performed a case study in which we analyzed video-recordings from Marina's six months of life. Episodes of differential behavior towards a figure were selected and micro-genetically transcribed. Moreover, mediator behaviors with each of the baby's caregivers were mapped. Results suggested differential behavior towards a discriminated figure since her third month. The dialogical and cultural processes that reverberated in selecting the mother as the attachment figure were discussed.

Résumé La survie du jeune enfant est rendue possible par la relation d'attachement, quand il cherche de la proximité, en émettant des comportements médiateurs vers une figure qui lui fournit sécurité. Réflexions de l'existence d'une intersubjectivité innée et évidences d'habiletés raffinées qu'on connaissait à l'époque de la formulation de la théorie on conduit à l'hypothèse que le comportement d'attachement peut être observé avant la période proposé par Bowlby. On a réalisé une étude de cas où des enregistrements vidéo du premier semestre de Marina ont été analysés. Episodes de comportement différentiel du jeune enfant avec une figure discriminée avant six mois ont été sélectionnés et analysés micro génétiquement; les comportements médiateurs avec chaque soignant ont été enregistrés à intervalles. Le comportement différentiel avec une figure discriminée a été observé déjà à trois mois de vie. L'influence des processus dialogiques et culturels sur le choix de la mère comme figure d'attachement sont discutés.

Resumen La garantía de supervivencia del bebé humano es posibilitada por el sistema de apego, en la medida en que el bebé busca acercamiento, mediante comportamientos mediadores emitidos en dirección de una figura que le proporcione seguridad. Las reflexiones derivadas de la intersubjetividad innata y evidentes habilidades mucho más refinadas de lo que eran conocidas en la época de la formulación de la teoría de Bowlby llevaron a la hipótesis de que el comportamiento de apego puede observarse antes de lo propuesto por él. Se realizó un estudio de caso a partir del análisis de grabaciones en video del primer semestre de vida de Mariana. Para ello, se seleccionaron y se analizaron microgenéticamente episodios de comportamiento diferencial del bebé con cuidadores antes de los seis meses; y se enumeraron los comportamientos mediadores con cada cuidador. Los resultados sugieren que el comportamiento diferencial con una figura discriminada se observó ya a los tres meses de vida. Se discutieron los procesos dialógicos y culturales que repercutirán en la selección de la madre como la figura de apego.

The Impact of Neurobehavior on Feeding Outcomes in Neonates with Congenital Heart Disease.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between neonatal neurobehavioral state and oral feeding outcomes following congenital heart disease (CHD) surgery. STUDY DESIGN: This single center retrospective cohort study described neonates undergoing cardiac surgery evaluated perioperatively with the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS). We compared NNNS attention scores, which evaluates neonates' ability to orient and fixate on stimuli, with the feeding outcomes percentage of feeds taken orally at discharge and time to reach full oral feeds using regression analyses. Models were constructed for both preoperative and postoperative NNNS evaluations. RESULTS: Between August 2015 and October 2017, 124 neonates underwent 89 preoperative and 97 postoperative NNNS evaluations. In multivariable Cox regression, higher preoperative NNNS attention scores were associated with a shorter time to achieve full oral feeds (hazard ratio 1.4; 95% CI 1.0‒2.0; P = .047). This relationship was not seen for post-operative NNNS attention scores or percentage of oral feeds at discharge. Depending on the model, younger age at surgery, increased ventilator days, increased length of stay, and single or 2-ventricle anatomy with aortic arch obstruction were associated with lower percentage of oral feeds at discharge and/or delay in full oral feeds. CONCLUSIONS: Higher neonatal attention before cardiac surgery is associated with improved feeding outcomes. Prospective assessment of neonatal neurobehavioral state may be a novel approach to predict and target interventions to improve feeding outcomes in CHD. Future studies should examine the impact of intrinsic neurodevelopmental delay vs environmental adaptation on the neurobehavioral state of neonates with CHD.

Neurobehavior of preterm infants from 32 to 48 weeks post-menstrual age.

AIM: Evaluate prospectively the neurobehavior of preterm infants (PT). STUDY DESIGN: Cohort of PT (gestational age(GA) <32weeks), evaluated biweekly from 32 to 48 weeks post-menstrual age (PMA) by NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS). Scores were compared by repeated Measures ANOVA. Scores of PT were compared to those of full-term infants, matched for gender by ANOVA. RESULTS: 39 PT (mean ± SD: GA 29.2 ± 2.0 weeks; birthweight 1100 ± 331g) were studied. As PMA progressed, PT showed increasing scores in habituation, attention, arousal, regulation, maneuvers for orientation, quality of movements and hypertonicity, and decreasing scores in excitability, lethargy, non-optimal reflexes, asymmetry, hypotonicity, and signs of stress/withdrawal. At 40 weeks PMA, PT were similar to term neonates assessed in the first days of life, except for less habituation, regulation capacity and excitability, and more hypotonia. CONCLUSION: At 40 weeks PMA, PT reached the performance of full-term neonates evaluated in the first days of life in most neurobehavior domains.

Breastfeeding and behavioural problems: Propensity score matching with a national cohort of infants in Chile.

IMPORTANCE: Potential effects of breast feeding on children's behaviour remains an elusive debate given inherent methodological challenges. Propensity score matching affords benefits by ensuring greater equivalence on observable social and health determinants, helping to reduce bias between groups. OBJECTIVES: We examined whether the duration of breast feeding had an impact on children's externalising and internalising behaviours. STUDY DESIGN: A cohort study (Encuesta Longitudinal de la Primera Infancia cohort) that included 3037 Chilean families who were enrolled in 2010. Follow-up data was collected in 2012. SETTING: General community. PARTICIPANTS: Population-based sample. Eligibility criteria: children born full-term with complete data on matching variables. Matching variables included: healthcare system as a proxy of income, presence of a partner/spouse in the household, maternal age, educational level, IQ, working status, type of work, diagnosis of prenatal depression by a healthcare professional, smoking during pregnancy, delivery type, child sex, weight at birth, incubation following delivery, and child age. EXPOSURE: Duration of breast feeding. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Externalising and internalising problems assessed using the Child Behaviour Checklist. RESULTS: Matched results revealed benefits of any breast feeding, up to 6 months, on emotional reactivity and somatic complaints (mean difference of -1.00, 95% CI, -1.84 to -0.16 and -1.02, 95% CI, -1.76 to -0.28, respectively). Children breast fed between 7 and 12 months also had reduced scores on emotional reactivity, in addition to attention problems (mean difference of -0.86, 95% CI, -1.66 to -0.06 and -0.50, 95% CI, -0.93 to -0.07, respectively). No benefits were observed for children breast fed 13 months or more. CONCLUSION: Reduced internalising difficulties and inattention were found in children breast fed up to a year, suggesting that breast feeding may have beneficial impacts on these areas of development. The magnitude of effect was modest. Extended durations of breast feeding did not appear to offer any benefits.

Cultural diversification of communicative gestures through early childhood: A comparison of children in English-, German-, and Chinese- speaking families.

Previous literature has demonstrated cultural differences in young children's use of communicative gestures, but the results were mixed depending on which gestures were measured and what age of children were involved. This study included variety of different types of gestures and examined whether children's use of communicative gestures varies by their cultural backgrounds and ages. 714 parents of children (6-36 months old) from U.S.A. English-, German-, and Taiwan Chinese- speaking countries completed the questionnaire on their children's use of each gesture described in the survey. We used logistic regressions to examine the effect of children's culture and age, and the interaction effect (culture×age). Children were more likely to use all gestures except reaching, showing, and smacking lips for "yum, yum" as their age increases. In addition, there were gestures that showed significantly different probabilities across children's cultural backgrounds. A significant interaction effect was shown for five gestures: reaching, showing, pointing, arms up to be picked up, and "quiet" gesture. Results suggest that the influence of culture on young children's communication emerges from infancy.

Concepções parentais sobre intencionalidade comunicativa em bebês aos 3 e 6 meses / Parental conceptions of communicative intentionality in infants at 3 and 6 months / Concepciones de los padres de la intencionalidad comunicativa en los bebés a los 3 y 6 meses

O presente estudo objetivou conhecer e analisar as concepções parentais acerca da intencionalidade comunicativa de bebês aos 3 e 6 meses do primeiro ano de vida. Foi utilizado um delineamento longitudinal, com a participação de 20 mães e de 20 pais, entrevistados em duas etapas. As entrevistas foram transcritas de forma literal e, em seguida, analisadas qualitativamente. Foram identificadas mais semelhanças do que diferenças entre os discursos maternos e paternos. Constatou-se que os relatos parentais apresentaram concepções que comportamentos infantis específicos podem ser indícios da habilidade de comunicação intencional. Especialmente na segunda etapa, quando os bebês tinham 6 meses de idade, os pais referiram comportamentos infantis que seriam exibidos para expressar vontades e indicar intenção. O conhecimento dessas concepções é importante para a compreensão das relações iniciais estabelecidas entre pais e seus filhos. (AU)

This study aimed to identify and analyze parental conceptions of the communicative intent of infants at 3 and 6 months in the first year of life. A longitudinal design was used, including 20 mothers and 20 fathers who were interviewed in two stages. The interviews were literally transcribed and then qualitatively analyzed. It was identified more similarities than differences between maternal and paternal speeches. It was found that parental reports presented conceptions that specific child behavior may be evidence of intentional communication skills. Especially in the second stage, when infants were 6 months old, parents mentioned child behavior that seemed to express wishes and indicate intention. Knowledge of these concepts is important for understanding the early relations between parents and their children. (AU)

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo conocer y analizar las concepciones de los padres sobre la intención comunicativa de los bebés a los 3 y 6 meses en su primer año de vida. Se utilizó un delineamiento longitudinal, y participaron 20 madres y 20 padres entrevistados en dos etapas. Las entrevistas fueron transcriptas literalmente y analizadas cualitativamente. Fueron identificadas más semejanzas que diferencias entre los discursos maternos y paternos. Se constató que los informes de los padres presentan concepciones sobre el hecho de que, comportamientos infantiles específicos, pueden ser indicios de la habilidad de comunicación intencional. Especialmente en la segunda etapa, cuando los bebés tenían 6 meses de edad, los padres indicaron que comportamientos infantiles fueron exibidos para expresar deseos e indicar la intención. El conocimiento de esas concepciones es importante para la comprensión de las relaciones iniciales estabelecidas entre padres y sus hijos. (AU)

Assessment of Maternal-Infant Interaction: Application of the Still Face Paradigm in a Rural Population of Working Women in Ecuador.

Objectives The importance of mother-child interaction in early infancy on child development has been well documented. The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility of using the Still Face Paradigm to measure mother interactive style, infant affect and emotional regulation in a rural Ecuador setting. Methods Infant's emotional regulation and the quality of mother's interaction were measured with the Still Face Paradigm at 4 months of age (±15 days). Twenty-four infants and their mothers were assessed in their home. Mother interactive style was coded for attention seeking and contingent responding. Emotional regulation was described by change in infant affect between Still Face episodes. Results A significant difference was found for infant affect between the five Still Face episodes (F1,118 = 9.185, p = 0.003). A significant negative correlation was found for infant affect between episode 3 and 2 with attention seeking mother interactive style during episode 3 (rho = -0.44, p = 0.03), indicating that mothers using more contingent-responding interactions had infants with more positive affect. Conversely, a significant positive association was found for infant affect between episode 3 and 2 and contingent responding mother interactive style during episode 3 (rho = 0.46, p = 0.02), indicating that mothers who used more attention seeking play had infants who showed less positive affect. Conclusion for Practice Study results demonstrate feasibility in using the Still Face Paradigm in working populations residing in a rural region in Ecuadorian highlands and may be feasible in other similar populations in Latin America, and as a successful approach to measuring maternal-child interactions within a field-based epidemiological study design.

The Social Reach: 8-Month-Olds Reach for Unobtainable Objects in the Presence of Another Person.

Linguistic communication builds on prelinguistic communicative gestures, but the ontogenetic origins and complexities of these prelinguistic gestures are not well known. The current study tested whether 8-month-olds, who do not yet point communicatively, use instrumental actions for communicative purposes. In two experiments, infants reached for objects when another person was present and when no one else was present; the distance to the objects was varied. When alone, the infants reached for objects within their action boundaries and refrained from reaching for objects out of their action boundaries; thus, they knew about their individual action efficiency. However, when a parent (Experiment 1) or a less familiar person (Experiment 2) sat next to them, the infants selectively increased their reaching for out-of-reach objects. The findings reveal that before they communicate explicitly through pointing gestures, infants use instrumental actions with the apparent expectation that a partner will adopt and complete their goals.

Maternal touch and infant affect in the Still Face Paradigm: A cross-cultural examination.

Touch between mother and infant plays an important role in development starting from birth. Cross-cultural differences surrounding rearing practices have an influence on parent-infant interaction, including types of touch used and the development of emotional regulation. This study was designed to investigate maternal touch and infant emotional regulation in infant-mother dyads from Ecuador (n=25) and Hispanic dyads from the United States (US) (n=26). Mothers and their 4-month-old full-term infants participated in the Still Face Paradigm. Second-by-second coding of maternal touch and infant affect was completed. Overall the analyses showed that Ecuadorian mothers used more nurturing and accompaniment touch and less attention seeking touch than US Hispanic mothers during the pre-stressor (baseline) episode. Lagged multilevel models were used to investigate the effect of the different types of touch on infant emotional regulation in the groups for the episodes. The data suggest that playful touch had a significant increase in infant affect, whereas accompaniment and attention-seeking touch had a significant decrease in infant affect. Overall, this study provides support for the role of touch in mother-infant synchronicity in relation to infant's emotional regulation. Identifying touch that is more calming is important to foster emotional regulation in infancy, which can have important implications for development.

Behavioral and neural correlates of emotional development: typically developing infants and infants of depressed and/or anxious mothers / Bases neurais e comportamentais do desenvolvimento emocional: lactentes com desenvolvimento típico e lactentes filhos de mães deprimidas e/ou ansiosas

ABSTRACT Objectives: To describe the main findings of studies of behavioral and neural correlates regarding the development of facial emotion processing during the first year of life in typically developing infants and infants of depressed and/or anxious mothers. Sources: Comprehensive, non-systematic review of the literature on studies about individual differences in facial emotion processing by newborns and infants over the first year of life. Summary of the findings: Maternal stress related to depression and anxiety has been associated to atypical emotional processing and attentional behaviors in the offspring. Recent neurophysiological studies using electroencephalogram and event-related potentials have begun to shed light on the possible mechanisms underlying such behaviors. Conclusions: Infants of depressed and/or anxious mothers have increased risk for several adverse outcomes across the lifespan. Further neurobehavioral investigations and the promotion of clinical and developmental research integration might eventually contribute to refining screening tools, improving treatment, and enabling primary prevention interventions for children at risk.

RESUMO Objetivos: Descrever os principais achados de estudos de correlação entre o comportamento e as bases neurais em relação ao processamento de emoções faciais durante o primeiro ano de vida de lactentes com desenvolvimento típico e lactentes de mães deprimidas e/ou ansiosas. Fontes: Análise abrangente e não sistemática da literatura de estudos sobre diferenças individuais no processamento de emoções faciais de neonatos e lactentes ao longo do primeiro ano de vida. Resumo dos achados: O estresse materno relacionado à depressão e ansiedade tem sido associado a alterações no processamento emocional e na alocação da atenção da prole. Estudos neurofisiológicos recentes utilizando electroencefalograma e potenciais relacionados a eventos começam a esclarecer os possíveis mecanismos inerentes a esses comportamentos. Conclusões: Lactentes filhos de mães deprimidas e/ou ansiosas têm maior risco de problemas de saúde física e mental durante toda vida. O avanço de estudos neurocomportamentais e a promoção de integração entre a pesquisa clínica e de desenvolvimento poderão contribuir para refinar as ferramentas de triagem, melhorar o tratamento e permitir intervenções de prevenção primária para crianças em risco.

Longitudinal effects of contextual and proximal factors on mother-infant interactions among Brazilian adolescent mothers.

Adolescent mothers often come from vulnerable backgrounds which might impact the quality of both maternal and infant behavior. Despite the negative impact of adolescent motherhood for maternal and infant behavior, social support may decrease the risks and promote maternal behavior toward the infant. The aim of this study was to investigate longitudinally the effects of proximal (maternal behavior) and distal (mother's perceived social support) variables on infant development in a sample of Brazilian adolescent mothers and their infants. Thirty-nine adolescent mothers (Mage=17.26years; SD=1.71) were observed interacting with their infants at 3 and 6 months postpartum and reported on social support. Results revealed that maternal and infant behavior were associated within and across times. Mothers' perceived social support at 3 months had an indirect effect on infant behavior at 6 months, totally mediated by maternal behavior at 6 months. Our findings revealed the mutual influence between maternal and infant behavior, revealing a proximal process. The results also underscored the importance of the passage of time in the interplay between mother-infant interactions and their developmental context.

Behavioral and neural correlates of emotional development: typically developing infants and infants of depressed and/or anxious mothers.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the main findings of studies of behavioral and neural correlates regarding the development of facial emotion processing during the first year of life in typically developing infants and infants of depressed and/or anxious mothers. SOURCES: Comprehensive, non-systematic review of the literature on studies about individual differences in facial emotion processing by newborns and infants over the first year of life. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS: Maternal stress related to depression and anxiety has been associated to atypical emotional processing and attentional behaviors in the offspring. Recent neurophysiological studies using electroencephalogram and event-related potentials have begun to shed light on the possible mechanisms underlying such behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Infants of depressed and/or anxious mothers have increased risk for several adverse outcomes across the lifespan. Further neurobehavioral investigations and the promotion of clinical and developmental research integration might eventually contribute to refining screening tools, improving treatment, and enabling primary prevention interventions for children at risk.

O brincar precoce do bebê como indicador de riscos de sofrimento psíquico / The early play of the baby as an indicator of risk of psychical distress / El juego precoz del bebé como indicador del riesgo de sufrimiento psíquico

Ao partirmos da noção de que os primeiros gestos espontâneos e criativos do bebê revelam aspectos importantes da qualidade de suas primeiras relações precoces com o objeto materno, bem como de seu processo de adaptação ao ambiente dito suficientemente bom, podemos presumir que o brincar primitivo do bebê possui um importante papel de sinalizador de sofrimento psíquico. Por meio de um estudo longitudinal de bebês com risco de autismo acompanhados entre os 6 meses e 3 anos, pôde-se constatar que a maneira como esses bebês exploram, interagem e respondem a um brincar compartilhado com o outro se diferencia significativamente da de bebês que apresentam um atraso do desenvolvimento psicomotor, sem traços de risco de autismo, e de bebês saudáveis (normais).

Using the notion that the first spontaneous and creative gestures of babies reveal important aspects of the quality of their first early relationships with the maternal object, as well as their process of adaptation to an environment considered as good enough, we can assume that the primitive play of babies has an important role to identify psychical distress. Through a longitudinal study of infants showing risk of autism, followed between 6 months and 3 years, we could find that the way these babies explore, interact and respond to a shared play with others significantly differ from babies who have a developmental delay without autistic traits, and healthy (normal) babies.

Si tomamos la noción de que los primeros gestos espontáneos y creativos del bebé aparecen aspectos importantes de la calidad de sus relaciones precoces con el objeto materno, así como el proceso de adaptación a un medio considerado suficientemente bueno, podemos suponer que estos juegos primitivos del bebé tienen un rol importante en la identificación del sufrimiento psíquico. A través de un estudio longitudinal con bebés que presentaban evidencias de riesgos autistas, seguidos entre los 6 meses hasta los 3 años de edad, mostró una diferencia significativa en la manera como estos exploran, interactúan y responden al juego con otros, en comparación con los que presentan un retardo en el desarrollo psicomotor, sin rasgos autistas, y con los de desarrollo normal.

O brincar precoce do bebê como indicador de riscos de sofrimento psíquico / The early play of the baby as an indicator of risk of psychical distress / El juego precoz del bebé como indicador del riesgo de sufrimiento psíquico

Ao partirmos da noção de que os primeiros gestos espontâneos e criativos do bebê revelam aspectos importantes da qualidade de suas primeiras relações precoces com o objeto materno, bem como de seu processo de adaptação ao ambiente dito suficientemente bom, podemos presumir que o brincar primitivo do bebê possui um importante papel de sinalizador de sofrimento psíquico. Por meio de um estudo longitudinal de bebês com risco de autismo acompanhados entre os 6 meses e 3 anos, pôde-se constatar que a maneira como esses bebês exploram, interagem e respondem a um brincar compartilhado com o outro se diferencia significativamente da de bebês que apresentam um atraso do desenvolvimento psicomotor, sem traços de risco de autismo, e de bebês saudáveis (normais).(AU)

Using the notion that the first spontaneous and creative gestures of babies reveal important aspects of the quality of their first early relationships with the maternal object, as well as their process of adaptation to an environment considered as good enough, we can assume that the primitive play of babies has an important role to identify psychical distress. Through a longitudinal study of infants showing risk of autism, followed between 6 months and 3 years, we could find that the way these babies explore, interact and respond to a shared play with others significantly differ from babies who have a developmental delay without autistic traits, and healthy (normal) babies.(AU)

Si tomamos la noción de que los primeros gestos espontáneos y creativos del bebé aparecen aspectos importantes de la calidad de sus relaciones precoces con el objeto materno, así como el proceso de adaptación a un medio considerado suficientemente bueno, podemos suponer que estos juegos primitivos del bebé tienen un rol importante en la identificación del sufrimiento psíquico. A través de un estudio longitudinal con bebés que presentaban evidencias de riesgos autistas, seguidos entre los 6 meses hasta los 3 años de edad, mostró una diferencia significativa en la manera como estos exploran, interactúan y responden al juego con otros, en comparación con los que presentan un retardo en el desarrollo psicomotor, sin rasgos autistas, y con los de desarrollo normal.(AU)