Generation of scalable cancer models by combining AAV-intron-trap, CRISPR/Cas9, and inducible Cre-recombinase.

Scalable isogenic models of cancer-associated mutations are critical to studying dysregulated gene function. Nonsynonymous mutations of splicing factors, which typically affect one allele, are common in many cancers, but paradoxically confer growth disadvantage to cell lines, making their generation and expansion challenging. Here, we combine AAV-intron trap, CRISPR/Cas9, and inducible Cre-recombinase systems to achieve >90% efficiency to introduce the oncogenic K700E mutation in SF3B1, a splicing factor commonly mutated in multiple cancers. The intron-trap design of AAV vector limits editing to one allele. CRISPR/Cas9-induced double stranded DNA breaks direct homologous recombination to the desired genomic locus. Inducible Cre-recombinase allows for the expansion of cells prior to loxp excision and expression of the mutant allele.  Importantly, AAV or CRISPR/Cas9 alone results in much lower editing efficiency and the edited cells do not expand due to toxicity of SF3B1-K700E. Our approach can be readily adapted to generate scalable isogenic systems where mutant oncogenes confer a growth disadvantage.

Adipocyte-specific deletion of Tcf7l2 induces dysregulated lipid metabolism and impairs glucose tolerance in mice.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2) is a downstream effector of the Wnt/ß-catenin signalling pathway implicated in type 2 diabetes risk through genome-wide association studies. Although its expression is critical for adipocyte development, the potential roles of changes in adipose tissue TCF7L2 levels in diabetes risk are poorly defined. Here, we investigated whether forced changes in Tcf7l2 expression in adipocytes affect whole body glucose or lipid metabolism and crosstalk between disease-relevant tissues. METHODS: Tcf7l2 was selectively ablated in mature adipocytes in C57BL/6J mice using Cre recombinase under Adipoq promoter control to recombine Tcf7l2 alleles floxed at exon 1 (referred to as aTCF7L2 mice). aTCF7L2 mice were fed normal chow or a high-fat diet for 12 weeks. Glucose and insulin sensitivity, as well as beta cell function, were assessed in vivo and in vitro. Levels of circulating NEFA, selected hormones and adipokines were measured using standard assays. RESULTS: Reduced TCF7L2 expression in adipocytes altered glucose tolerance and insulin secretion in male but not in female mice. Thus, on a normal chow diet, male heterozygote knockout mice (aTCF7L2het) exhibited impaired glucose tolerance at 16 weeks (p = 0.03) and increased fat mass (1.4 ± 0.1-fold, p = 0.007) but no changes in insulin secretion. In contrast, male homozygote knockout (aTCF7L2hom) mice displayed normal body weight but impaired oral glucose tolerance at 16 weeks (p = 0.0001). These changes were mechanistically associated with impaired in vitro glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (decreased 0.5 ± 0.1-fold vs control mice, p = 0.02) and decreased levels of the incretins glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (0.6 ± 0.1-fold and 0.4 ± 0.1-fold vs control mice, p = 0.04 and p < 0.0001, respectively). Circulating levels of plasma NEFA and fatty acid binding protein 4 were increased by 1.3 ± 0.1-fold and 1.8 ± 0.3-fold vs control mice (p = 0.03 and p = 0.05, respectively). Following exposure to a high-fat diet for 12 weeks, male aTCF7L2hom mice exhibited reduced in vivo glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (0.5 ± 0.1-fold vs control mice, p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Loss of Tcf7l2 gene expression selectively in adipocytes leads to a sexually dimorphic phenotype, with impairments not only in adipocytes, but also in pancreatic islet and enteroendocrine cells in male mice only. Our findings suggest novel roles for adipokines and incretins in the effects of diabetes-associated variants in TCF7L2, and further illuminate the roles of TCF7L2 in glucose homeostasis and diabetes risk. Graphical abstract.

Control of ϕC31 integrase-mediated site-specific recombination by protein trans-splicing.

Serine integrases are emerging as core tools in synthetic biology and have applications in biotechnology and genome engineering. We have designed a split-intein serine integrase-based system with potential for regulation of site-specific recombination events at the protein level in vivo. The ϕC31 integrase was split into two extein domains, and intein sequences (Npu DnaEN and Ssp DnaEC) were attached to the two termini to be fused. Expression of these two components followed by post-translational protein trans-splicing in Escherichia coli generated a fully functional ϕC31 integrase. We showed that protein splicing is necessary for recombination activity; deletion of intein domains or mutation of key intein residues inactivated recombination. We used an invertible promoter reporter system to demonstrate a potential application of the split intein-regulated site-specific recombination system in building reversible genetic switches. We used the same split inteins to control the reconstitution of a split Integrase-Recombination Directionality Factor fusion (Integrase-RDF) that efficiently catalysed the reverse attR x attL recombination. This demonstrates the potential for split-intein regulation of the forward and reverse reactions using the integrase and the integrase-RDF fusion, respectively. The split-intein integrase is a potentially versatile, regulatable component for building synthetic genetic circuits and devices.

Characterization of Adult Vestibular Organs in 11 CreER Mouse Lines.

Utricles are vestibular sense organs that encode linear head movements. They are composed of a sensory epithelium with type I and type II hair cells and supporting cells, sitting atop connective tissue, through which vestibular nerves project. We characterized utricular Cre expression in 11 murine CreER lines using the ROSA26tdTomato reporter line and tamoxifen induction at 6 weeks of age. This characterization included Calbindin2CreERT2, Fgfr3-iCreERT2, GFAP-A-CreER™, GFAP-B-CreER™, GLAST-CreERT2, Id2CreERT2, OtoferlinCreERT2, ParvalbuminCreERT2, Prox1CreERT2, Sox2CreERT2, and Sox9-CreERT2. OtoferlinCreERT2 mice had inducible Cre activity specific to hair cells. GLAST-CreERT2, Id2CreERT2, and Sox9-CreERT2 had inducible Cre activity specific to supporting cells. Sox2CreERT2 had inducible Cre activity in supporting cells and most type II hair cells. ParvalbuminCreERT2 mice had small numbers of labeled vestibular nerve afferents. Calbindin2CreERT2 mice had labeling of most type II hair cells and some type I hair cells and supporting cells. Only rare (or no) tdTomato-positive cells were detected in utricles of Fgfr3-iCreERT2, GFAP-A-CreER™, GFAP-B-CreER™, and Prox1CreERT2 mice. No Cre leakiness (tdTomato expression in the absence of tamoxifen) was observed in OtoferlinCreERT2 mice. A small degree of leakiness was seen in GLAST-CreERT2, Id2CreERT2, Sox2CreERT2, and Sox9-CreERT2 lines. Calbindin2CreERT2 mice had similar tdTomato expression with or without tamoxifen, indicating lack of inducible control under the conditions tested. In conclusion, 5 lines-GLAST-CreERT2, Id2CreERT2, OtoferlinCreERT2, Sox2CreERT2, and Sox9-CreERT2-showed cell-selective, inducible Cre activity with little leakiness, providing new genetic tools for researchers studying the vestibular periphery.

Deletion of NF-κB/RelA in Angiotensin II-Sensitive Mesenchymal Cells Blocks Aortic Vascular Inflammation and Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Formation.

OBJECTIVE: Infusion of angiotensin II (Ang II) induces extracellular matrix remodeling and inflammation resulting in abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) in normolipidemic mice. Although Ang II activates mesenchymal cells in the media and adventitia to become fibrogenic, the sentinel role of this mesenchymal population in modulating the inflammatory response and aneurysms is not known. We test the hypothesis that these fibrogenic mesenchymal cells play a critical role in Ang II-induced aortic wall vascular inflammation and AAA formation. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Ang II infusion increased phospho-Ser536-RelA and interleukin (IL)-6 immunostaining in the abdominal aorta. In addition, aortic mRNA transcripts of RelA-dependent cytokines IL-6 and IL-1ß were significantly elevated suggesting that Ang II functionally activates RelA signaling. To test the role of mesenchymal RelA in AAA formation, we generated RelA-CKO mice by administering tamoxifen to double transgenic mice harboring RelA-flox alleles and tamoxifen-inducible Col1a2 promoter-driven Cre recombinase (Col1a2-CreERT). Tamoxifen administration to Col1a2-CreERT•mT/mG mice induced Cre expression and RelA depletion in aortic smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts but not in endothelial cells. Infusion of Ang II significantly increased abdominal aortic diameter and the incidence of AAA in RelA wild-type but not in RelA-CKO mice, independent of changes in systolic blood pressure. Furthermore, mesenchymal cell-specific RelA-CKO mice exhibited decreased expression of IL-6 and IL-1ß cytokines and decreased recruitment of C68+ and F4/80lo•Ly6Chi monocytes during Ang II infusion. CONCLUSIONS: Fibrogenic mesenchymal RelA plays a causal role in Ang II-induced vascular inflammation and AAA in normolipidemic mice.

Mechanism of bacterial gene rearrangement: SprA-catalyzed precise DNA recombination and its directionality control by SprB ensure the gene rearrangement and stable expression of spsM during sporulation in Bacillus subtilis.

A sporulation-specific gene, spsM, is disrupted by an active prophage, SPß, in the genome of Bacillus subtilis. SPß excision is required for two critical steps: the onset of the phage lytic cycle and the reconstitution of the spsM-coding frame during sporulation. Our in vitro study demonstrated that SprA, a serine-type integrase, catalyzed integration and excision reactions between attP of SPß and attB within spsM, while SprB, a recombination directionality factor, was necessary only for the excision between attL and attR in the SPß lysogenic chromosome. DNA recombination occurred at the center of the short inverted repeat motif in the unique conserved 16 bp sequence among the att sites (5΄-ACAGATAA/AGCTGTAT-3΄; slash, breakpoint; underlines, inverted repeat), where SprA produced the 3΄-overhanging AA and TT dinucleotides for rejoining the DNA ends through base-pairing. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that SprB promoted synapsis of SprA subunits bound to the two target sites during excision but impaired it during integration. In vivo data demonstrated that sprB expression that lasts until the late stage of sporulation is crucial for stable expression of reconstituted spsM without reintegration of the SPß prophage. These results present a deeper understanding of the mechanism of the prophage-mediated bacterial gene regulatory system.

The FACT Complex Promotes Avian Leukosis Virus DNA Integration.

All retroviruses need to integrate a DNA copy of their genome into the host chromatin. Cellular proteins regulating and targeting lentiviral and gammaretroviral integration in infected cells have been discovered, but the factors that mediate alpharetroviral avian leukosis virus (ALV) integration are unknown. In this study, we have identified the FACT protein complex, which consists of SSRP1 and Spt16, as a principal cellular binding partner of ALV integrase (IN). Biochemical experiments with purified recombinant proteins show that SSRP1 and Spt16 are able to individually bind ALV IN, but only the FACT complex effectively stimulates ALV integration activity in vitro Likewise, in infected cells, the FACT complex promotes ALV integration activity, with proviral integration frequency varying directly with cellular expression levels of the FACT complex. An increase in 2-long-terminal-repeat (2-LTR) circles in the depleted FACT complex cell line indicates that this complex regulates the ALV life cycle at the level of integration. This regulation is shown to be specific to ALV, as disruption of the FACT complex did not inhibit either lentiviral or gammaretroviral integration in infected cells.IMPORTANCE The majority of human gene therapy approaches utilize HIV-1- or murine leukemia virus (MLV)-based vectors, which preferentially integrate near genes and regulatory regions; thus, insertional mutagenesis is a substantial risk. In contrast, ALV integrates more randomly throughout the genome, which decreases the risks of deleterious integration. Understanding how ALV integration is regulated could facilitate the development of ALV-based vectors for use in human gene therapy. Here we show that the FACT complex directly binds and regulates ALV integration efficiency in vitro and in infected cells.

Tpbpa-Cre-mediated deletion of TFAP2C leads to deregulation of Cdkn1a, Akt1 and the ERK pathway, causing placental growth arrest.

Loss of TFAP2C in mouse leads to developmental defects in the extra-embryonic compartment with lethality at embryonic day (E)7.5. To investigate the requirement of TFAP2C in later placental development, deletion of TFAP2C was induced throughout extra-embryonic ectoderm at E6.5, leading to severe placental abnormalities caused by reduced trophoblast population and resulting in embryonic retardation by E8.5. Deletion of TFAP2C in TPBPA(+) progenitors at E8.5 results in growth arrest of the junctional zone. TFAP2C regulates its target genes Cdkn1a (previously p21) and Dusp6, which are involved in repression of MAPK signaling. Loss of TFAP2C reduces activation of ERK1/2 in the placenta. Downregulation of Akt1 and reduced activation of phosphorylated AKT in the mutant placenta are accompanied by impaired glycogen synthesis. Loss of TFAP2C led to upregulation of imprinted gene H19 and downregulation of Slc38a4 and Ascl2. The placental insufficiency post E16.5 causes fetal growth restriction, with 19% lighter mutant pups. Knockdown of TFAP2C in human trophoblast choriocarcinoma JAr cells inhibited MAPK and AKT signaling. Thus, we present a model where TFAP2C in trophoblasts controls proliferation by repressing Cdkn1a and activating the MAPK pathway, further supporting differentiation of glycogen cells by activating the AKT pathway.

Tagged Chromosomal Insertion Site System: A Method to Study Lamina-Associated Chromatin.

The three-dimensional (3D) organization of the genome is important for chromatin regulation. This organization is nonrandom and appears to be tightly correlated with or regulated by chromatin state and scaffolding proteins. To understand how specific DNA and chromatin elements contribute to the functional organization of the genome, we developed a new tool-the tagged chromosomal insertion site (TCIS) system-to identify and study minimal DNA sequences that drive nuclear compartmentalization and applied this system to specifically study the role of cis elements in targeting DNA to the nuclear lamina. The TCIS system allows Cre-recombinase-mediated site-directed integration of any DNA fragment into a locus tagged with lacO arrays, thus enabling both functional molecular studies and positional analysis of the altered locus. This system can be used to study the minimal DNA sequences that target the nuclear periphery (or other nuclear compartments), allowing researchers to understand how genome-wide results obtained, for example, by DNA adenine methyltransferase identification, chromosome conformation capture (HiC), or related methods, connect to the actual organization of DNA and chromosomes at the single-cell level. Finally, TCIS allows one to test roles for specific proteins in chromatin reorganization and to determine how changes in nuclear environment affect chromatin state and gene regulation at a single locus.

Ty1 Integrase Interacts with RNA Polymerase III-specific Subcomplexes to Promote Insertion of Ty1 Elements Upstream of Polymerase (Pol) III-transcribed Genes.

Retrotransposons are eukaryotic mobile genetic elements that transpose by reverse transcription of an RNA intermediate and are derived from retroviruses. The Ty1 retrotransposon of Saccharomyces cerevisiae belongs to the Ty1/Copia superfamily, which is present in every eukaryotic genome. Insertion of Ty1 elements into the S. cerevisiae genome, which occurs upstream of genes transcribed by RNA Pol III, requires the Ty1 element-encoded integrase (IN) protein. Here, we report that Ty1-IN interacts in vivo and in vitro with RNA Pol III-specific subunits to mediate insertion of Ty1 elements upstream of Pol III-transcribed genes. Purification of Ty1-IN from yeast cells followed by mass spectrometry (MS) analysis identified an enrichment of peptides corresponding to the Rpc82/34/31 and Rpc53/37 Pol III-specific subcomplexes. GFP-Trap purification of multiple GFP-tagged RNA Pol III subunits from yeast extracts revealed that the majority of Pol III subunits co-purify with Ty1-IN but not two other complexes required for Pol III transcription, transcription initiation factors (TF) IIIB and IIIC. In vitro binding studies with bacterially purified RNA Pol III proteins demonstrate that Rpc31, Rpc34, and Rpc53 interact directly with Ty1-IN. Deletion of the N-terminal 280 amino acids of Rpc53 abrogates insertion of Ty1 elements upstream of the hot spot SUF16 tRNA locus and abolishes the interaction of Ty1-IN with Rpc37. The Rpc53/37 complex therefore has an important role in targeting Ty1-IN to insert Ty1 elements upstream of Pol III-transcribed genes.

Site-Specific Recombination by SSV2 Integrase: Substrate Requirement and Domain Functions.

UNLABELLED: SSV-type integrases, encoded by fuselloviruses which infect the hyperthermophilic archaea of the Sulfolobales, are archaeal members of the tyrosine recombinase family. These integrases catalyze viral integration into and excision from a specific site on the host genome. In the present study, we have established an in vitro integration/excision assay for SSV2 integrase (Int(SSV2)). Int(SSV2) alone was able to catalyze both integration and excision reactions in vitro. A 27-bp specific DNA sequence is minimally required for the activity of the enzyme, and its flanking sequences influence the efficiency of integration by the enzyme in a sequence-nonspecific manner. The enzyme forms a tetramer through interactions in the N-terminal part (residues 1 to 80), interacts nonspecifically with DNA and performs chemical catalysis in the C-terminal part (residues 165 to 328), and appears to recognize and bind the specific site of recombination in the middle portion (residues 81 to 164). It is worth noting that an N-terminally truncated mutant of Int(SSV2) (residues 81 to 328), which corresponded to the putative product of the 3'-end sequence of the Int(SSV2) gene of the integrated SSV2 genome, was unable to form tetramers but possessed all the catalytic properties of full-length Int(SSV2) except for the slightly reduced recombination activity. Our results suggest that, unlike λ integrase, SSV-type integrases alone are capable of catalyzing viral DNA recombination with the host genome in a simple and reversible fashion. IMPORTANCE: Archaea are host to a variety of viruses. A number of archaeal viruses are able to integrate their genome into the host genome. Many known archaeal viral integrases belong to a unique type, or the SSV type, of tyrosine recombinases. SSV-type integrases catalyze viral integration into and excision from a specific site on the host genome. However, the molecular details of the recombination process have yet to be fully understood because of the lack of an established in vitro recombination assay system. Here we report an in vitro assay for integration and excision by SSV2 integrase, a member of the SSV-type integrases. We show that SSV2 integrase alone is able to catalyze both integration and excision and reveal how different parts of the target DNA and the enzyme serve their roles in these processes. Therefore, our results provide mechanistic insights into a simple recombination process catalyzed by an archaeal integrase.

Application of a novel regulatable Cre recombinase system to define the role of liver and gut metabolism in drug oral bioavailability.

The relative contribution of hepatic compared with intestinal oxidative metabolism is a crucial factor in drug oral bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy. Oxidative metabolism is mediated by the cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase system to which cytochrome P450 reductase (POR) is the essential electron donor. In order to study the relative importance of these pathways in drug disposition, we have generated a novel mouse line where Cre recombinase is driven off the endogenous Cyp1a1 gene promoter; this line was then crossed on to a floxed POR mouse. A 40 mg/kg dose of the Cyp1a1 inducer 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC) eliminated POR expression in both liver and small intestine, whereas treatment at 4 mg/kg led to a more targeted deletion in the liver. Using this approach, we have studied the pharmacokinetics of three probe drugs--paroxetine, midazolam, nelfinavir--and show that intestinal metabolism is a determinant of oral bioavailability for the two latter compounds. The Endogenous Reductase Locus (ERL) mouse represents a significant advance on previous POR deletion models as it allows direct comparison of hepatic and intestinal effects on drug and xenobiotic clearance using lower doses of a single Cre inducing agent, and in addition minimizes any cytotoxic effects, which may compromise interpretation of the experimental data.

Dual fluorescent reporter pig for Cre recombination: transgene placement at the ROSA26 locus.

We are extending the Cre/loxP site-specific recombination system to pigs, focussing on conditional and tissue-specific expression of oncogenic mutations to model human cancers. Identifying the location, pattern and extent of Cre recombination in vivo is an important aspect of this technology. Here we report pigs with a dual fluorochrome cassette under the control of the strong CAG promoter that switches expression after Cre-recombination, from membrane-targeted tandem dimer Tomato to membrane-targeted green fluorescent protein. The reporter cassette was placed at the porcine ROSA26 locus by conventional gene targeting using primary mesenchymal stem cells, and animals generated by nuclear transfer. Gene targeting efficiency was high, and analysis of foetal organs and primary cells indicated that the reporter is highly expressed and functional. Cre reporter pigs will provide a multipurpose indicator of Cre recombinase activity, an important new tool for the rapidly expanding field of porcine genetic modification.

PhiC31 integrase induces efficient site-specific recombination in the Capra hircus genome.

Streptomyces phage φC31 integrase induces efficient site-specific recombination capable of integrating exogenous genes at pseudo attP sites in human, mouse, rat, rabbit, sheep, Drosophila, and bovine genomes. However, the φC31-mediated recombination between attB and the corresponding pseudo attP sites has not been investigated in Capra hircus. Here, we identified eight pseudo attP sites located in the intron or intergenic regions of the C. hircus genome, and demonstrated different levels of foreign gene expression after φC31 integrase-mediated integration. These pseudo attP sites share similar sequences with each other and with pseudo attP sites in other mammalian genomes, and these are associated with a neighboring consensus motif found in other genomes. The application of the φC31 integrase system in C. hircus provides a new option for genetic engineering of this economically important goat species.

Colon-specific tumorigenesis in mice driven by Cre-mediated inactivation of Apc and activation of mutant Kras.

Several genetically engineered mouse (GEM) models of colorectal cancer have been developed and are a mainstay in our efforts to identify means of preventing and treating this disease. Many of these models involve a germline disruption of the adenomatous polyposis coli (Apc) tumor suppressor gene and share the limitation that the great preponderance of tumors appear in the small rather than large intestine. In recent years efforts have been made to increase the similarity of these models to human sporadic colorectal cancer by disrupting Apc in a tissue-specific fashion using the Cre-Lox system so that the genetic aberrations are confined to the colonic epithelium. These models have shown great promise but reproducible and high penetrance colon-specific tumorigenesis has not yet been achieved without invasive techniques to introduce the Cre enzyme. We therefore sought to create a new model with high penetrance colon-specific tumorigenesis but without the need for exogenous Cre administration. We utilized existing mice possessing a conditional knock out for the Apc gene and a latent activated Kras allele and crossed them with mice expressing Cre recombinase solely in the large intestine. Using this approach we generated mice that developed 1-9 colonic adenomas per mouse (average 4.3) but without any tumors in the small intestine or cecum. No invasive tumors were observed. Despite the apparent lack of invasion, the geographical correctness, complete penetrance and intermediate tumor burden make this model a promising addition to our toolkit for the study of colorectal cancer treatment and prevention.

Efficient genome engineering by targeted homologous recombination in mouse embryos using transcription activator-like effector nucleases.

Generation of mouse models by introducing transgenes using homologous recombination is critical for understanding fundamental biology and pathology of human diseases. Here we investigate whether artificial transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs)-powerful tools that induce DNA double-strand breaks at specific genomic locations-can be combined with a targeting vector to induce homologous recombination for the introduction of a transgene in embryonic stem cells and fertilized murine oocytes. We describe the generation of a conditional mouse model using TALENs, which introduce double-strand breaks at the genomic locus of the special AT-rich sequence-binding protein-1 in combination with a large 14.4 kb targeting template vector. We report successful germline transmission of this allele and demonstrate its recombination in primary cells in the presence of Cre-recombinase. These results suggest that TALEN-assisted induction of DNA double-strand breaks can facilitate homologous recombination of complex targeting constructs directly in oocytes.

Abundant LacZ activity in the absence of Cre expression in the normal and inflamed synovium of adult Col2a1-Cre; ROSA26RLacZ reporter mice.

Recent analyses of Col2a1-Cre; ROSA26R reporter mice showed that synovial fibroblasts in 7-day mice were LacZ positive, due to a history of Col2a1-Cre expression conferred by their origin in the interzone of the developing joint. We have examined LacZ staining in adult Col2a1-Cre(+/0); ROSA26R(LacZ) mice, with and without inflammatory arthritis, and found that synovial fibroblasts in normal and inflamed synovium are LacZ positive, but Cre negative. Our results suggest that Cre-mediated recombination in joint interzone cells during development endure in adult synovial cells despite the absence of ongoing Cre expression. These findings have important implications and applications for the study of synovial inflammation in models of experimental arthritis.

Integration-dependent bacteriophage immunity provides insights into the evolution of genetic switches.

Genetic switches are critical components of developmental circuits. Because temperate bacteriophages are vastly abundant and greatly diverse, they are rich resources for understanding the mechanisms and evolution of switches and the molecular control of genetic circuitry. Here, we describe a new class of small, compact, and simple switches that use site-specific recombination as the key decision point. The phage attachment site attP is located within the phage repressor gene such that chromosomal integration results in removal of a C-terminal tag that destabilizes the virally encoded form of the repressor. Integration thus not only confers prophage stability but also is a requirement for lysogenic establishment. The variety of these self-contained integration-dependent immunity systems in different genomic contexts suggests that these represent ancestral states in switch evolution from which more-complex switches have evolved. They also provide a powerful toolkit for building synthetic biological circuits.

Gαq and Gα11 contribute to the maintenance of cellular electrophysiology and Ca2+ handling in ventricular cardiomyocytes.

AIMS: Gα(q) and Gα(11) signalling pathways contribute to cardiac diseases such as hypertrophy and arrhythmia, but their role in cardiac myocytes from healthy hearts has remained unclear. We aimed to investigate the contribution of Gα(q) and Gα(11) signalling to the basal properties of ventricular myocytes. METHODS AND RESULTS: We created a conditional Gα(q) knockout (KO) after tamoxifen injection into gnaq(flox/flox) gna11(-/-) α-MHC Cre(tg/0) mice and found alterations in the electrophysiological and Ca(2+) handling properties of ventricular myocytes using patch-clamp and Fura-2 video imaging. To reveal the genuine effects of protein KO, we investigated the individual contributions of (i) tamoxifen injection, (ii) Cre recombinase expression, (iii) Gα(11) KO, and (iv) Gα(q) KO. Profound and persistent alterations in myocyte properties occurred following the tamoxifen injection alone. Consequently, we used the presence or absence of Cre recombinase expression as the determinant for the Gα(q) KO. Myocytes from the Gα(q) and/or Gα(11) KO mice displayed genuine alterations in the action potentials, membrane capacitance, membrane currents, and Ca(2+) handling (amplitude, post-rest behaviour, and Ca(2+) removal processes). CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that, in a transgenic model, the role of Gα(q) can be best studied using Cre recombinase expression as the molecular determinant for Gα(q) KO rather than tamoxifen/miglyol injection. While excessive hormonal stimulation of the Gα(q)/Gα(11) signalling pathways plays an essential role in cardiac diseases, we propose that the persistent low-level stimulation of these pathways by Gα(q)/Gα(11) activation is instrumental in the physiological behaviour of ventricular myocytes.

[Progress in Cre/lox site-specific recombination system in higher eukaryotes].

Cre/lox system derived from P1 bacteriaphage can quickly and effectively achieve gene insertion, deletion, replacement, and inversion by means of site-specific recombination. As one of the most important tools for gene targeting at present, Cre/lox system has been widely used in Arabidopsis thaliana, Oryza sativa L., Mus musculus, Drosophila melanogaster, Danio rerio, and other higher eukaryotic organisms. This review roundly described the basic profile of Cre/lox system, and its application in higher eukaryotes. In addition, we also discussed the main problems and developmental trend of the Cre/lox system in this review, which can be a good reference for using Cre/lox system to realize the gene manipulations of the different high eukaryotic organisms.