Management of Intracranial Pressure Part II: Nonpharmacologic Interventions.

Pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic interventions are available to treat patients who experience serious elevations in intracranial pressure (ICP). In some cases, patients may experience ICP that is refractory to treatment. Significant negative effects on cerebral blood flow, tissue oxygenation, and cerebral metabolism occur as a result of intracranial hypertension, leading to secondary brain injury. In part 2 of this series, nonpharmacologic interventions for ICP and ICP refractory to treatment are discussed. Interventions include neurologic monitoring (bedside assessment and multimodal monitoring), ventilatory support, fluid and electrolyte maintenance, targeted temperature management, and surgical intervention. Technology is always evolving, and the focus of multimodal monitoring here includes devices to monitor ICP, brain tissue oxygen tension, and cerebral blood flow and cerebral microdialysis monitors. Nursing care of these patients includes perspicacious assessment and integration of data, monitoring ventilatory and hemodynamic functioning, and appropriate patient positioning. Nurses must collaborate with the interprofessional care team to ensure favorable patient outcomes while utilizing an evidence-based guideline for the management of ICP.

Assistência de enfermagem na monitorização da pressão intracraniana em pacientes neurocríticos / Service of nursing in intracranial pressure monitoring in patients neurocríticos / Servicio de enfermería en el monitoreo de la presión intracraneal en pacientes neurocríticos

Objetivo: Identificar a través de la literatura las intervenciones de enfermería en el monitoreo de la presión intracraneal en pacientes neurocríticos. Método: Revisión de la literatura integradora con búsqueda de artículos, SciELO, LILACS y PUBMED. Los artículos seleccionados fueron publicados entre los años 2007 y 2017. Resultados: Se encontraron 94 artículos y excluidos 78 como criterios de inclusión. Hasta 16 artículos fueron utilizados en esta revisión. Estos datos sugieren que la monitorización neurológica puede realizarse en una invasiva y no invasiva. Entre los métodos invasivos es el monitoreo de la presión intracraneal y la enfermera, que era directamente responsable de este cuidado. Por lo tanto, el cuidado y la elevación de la cabeza, cuidado con aspiración traqueal, cuidado con hipoxemia, coordinación y gestión en enfermería entre otros debe ser parte de la atención de enfermería. Conclusión: Cuidados de enfermería es esencial para el paciente neurocrítico. Este cuidado contribuir tanto positivos como negativos en estos pacientes

Objective: To identify through literature the nursing interventions in the intracranial pressure monitoring in patients neurocríticos. Method: Integrative review of literature with search of articles in SciELO, LILACS, and PUBMED. The selected articles were published between the years 2007 and 2017. Results: We found 94 articles and excluded 78 as inclusion criteria. So 16 articles were used in this review. These suggest that the neurological monitoring can be performed in a invasive and non invasive. Among the invasive methods is the monitoring of intracranial pressure, and the nurse, who was directly responsible for this care. Thus, care and the elevation of the head, care with tracheal aspiration, care with hypoxemia, coordination and management in nursing care among others must be part of nursing care. Conclusion: Nursing care is essential for the patient neurocrítico. This care contribute to both positive developments as negative in these patients

Objetivo: Identificar por meio da literatura as intervenções de enfermagem na monitorização da pressão intracraniana em pacientes neurocríticos. Método:Revisão integrativa da literatura com busca dos artigos nas bases de dados SciELO, LILACS e PUBMED. Os artigos selecionados foram publicados entre os anos de 2007 e 2017. Resultados: Foram encontrados 94 artigos e excluídos 78 conforme critérios de inclusão. Assim, 16 artigos foram usados nesta revisão. Estes apontaram que a monitorização neurológica pode ser realizada de maneira invasiva e não invasiva. Entre os métodos invasivos, está a monitorização da pressão intracraniana, sendo o enfermeiro, responsável direto neste cuidado. Assim, cuidados como a elevação da cabeceira, cuidados com aspiração traqueal, cuidados com hipoxemia, coordenação e gerenciamento nos cuidados de enfermagem, entre outros, devem fazer parte da assistência de enfermagem. Conclusão: Os cuidados de enfermagem são indispensáveis para o paciente neurocrítico. Estes cuidados contribuem tanto para evolução positiva quanto negativa desses pacientes

Management of Intracranial Pressure: Part I: Pharmacologic Interventions.

Dangerous, sustained elevation in intracranial pressure (ICP) is a risk for any patient following severe brain injury. Intracranial pressure elevations that do not respond to initial management are considered refractory to treatment, or rICP. Patients are at significant risk of secondary brain injury and permanent loss of function resulting from rICP. Both nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic interventions are utilized to intervene when a patient experiences either elevation in ICP or rICP. In part 1 of this 2-part series, pharmacologic interventions are discussed. Opioids, sedatives, osmotic diuretics, hypertonic saline solutions, and barbiturates are drug classes that may be used in an attempt to normalize ICP and prevent secondary injury. Nursing care of these patients includes collaboration with an interprofessional team and is directed toward patient and family comfort. The utilization of an evidence-based guideline for the management of rICP is strongly encouraged to improve patient outcomes.

Gestão da pressão intracraniana no doente crítico: intervenção de enfermagem especializada / Management of intracranial pressure in critically ill patients: specialized nursing intervention

A Pressão Intracraniana (PIC) elevada pode ameaçar a vida dos doentes, sendo a sua monitorização um dos principais focos de atenção da equipa de enfermagem no cuidado ao doente neurocrítico e um aspeto relevante para a tomada de decisão da equipa multidisciplinar no que respeita ao plano de tratamento. A intervenção de enfermagem especializada na gestão e diminuição dos valores de PIC é fundamental para a melhoria dos outcomes neurológicos dos doentes, uma vez que o enfermeiro contribui, através da vigilância e identificação precoce de potenciais focos de instabilidade, para a sua segurança, agindo em prol da diminuição e/ou prevenção de lesões cerebrais secundárias e, consequentemente, assegurando a melhoria da qualidade dos cuidados prestados. Com o objetivo de desenvolver competências no cuidado à PSC, através da prestação de cuidados de enfermagem seguros, baseados na evidência, sustentados pelo pensamento crítico-reflexivo, e análise da dimensão ética das situações complexas, foi elaborado o Projeto de Estágio, implementado em contexto clínico e refletido no presente documento, permitindo demonstrar um nível aprofundado de conhecimentos numa área específica da Enfermagem, nomeadamente no cuidado ao doente neurocrítico com alteração/elevação da PIC. O percurso de aquisição e de desenvolvimento das competências teve em consideração as competências do Curso de Mestrado em Enfermagem em PSC (ESEL, 2010), as preconizadas pelos Descritores de Dublin para o 2º Ciclo de Estudos (DGS, 2008), o Modelo Dreyfus aplicado à Enfermagem (Benner, 2001) e as Competências Comuns do Enfermeiro Especialista e Específicas do Enfermeiro Especialista em Enfermagem em Pessoa em Situação Crítica da OE (2010). Demonstradas as competências adquiridas ao longo do CMEPSC, a prestação de cuidados de enfermagem especializada encontra-se assente em sólidos pilares que permitem contribuir para a excelência dos cuidados de saúde, acompanhando o desenvolvimento social, científico e tecnológico atual.

Elevated intracranial pressure can threaten the lives of patients, with monitoring being one of the main focuses of attention of the nursing team in the care of the neurocritical patient and a relevant aspect for the decision making of the multidisciplinary team regarding the treatment plan. The specialized nursing intervention in the management and reduction of the ICP values is fundamental for the improvement of the neurological outcomes of the patients, since the nurse contributes, through the surveillance and early identification of potential foci of instability, to their safety, acting in favor of the reduction and / or prevention of secondary brain injuries and, consequently, ensuring the improvement of the quality of the care provided. With the aim of developing skills in the care of the critically ill patient, through the provision of safe, evidence-based nursing care, supported by critical thinking, and analysis of the ethical dimension of complex situations, an internship project was prepared, implemented in clinical context and reflected in this document, allowing to demonstrate an in-depth level of knowledge in a specific area of Nursing, namely in the care of the neurocritical patient with altered/elevated ICP. The acquisition and development of competences path took into account the competences of the Master's Degree in Critical Care Nursing (ESEL, 2010), those recommended by the Dublin Descriptors for the 2nd Cycle of Studies (DGS, 2008), the Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition (Benner, 2001) and the Common Competences of the Nursing Specialist and Specific Competences of the Critical Care Nursing Specialist of the OE (2010). After being demonstrated the acquired skills throughout the Masters Degree in Critical Care Nursing, the provision of specialized nursing care is well fundamented, contributing to excellence in care, keeping up with the current social, scientific and technological development.

Predictive Factors That May Contribute to Secondary Insults With Nursing Interventions in Adults With Traumatic Brain Injury.

BACKGROUND: Nursing interventions pose risks and benefits to patients with traumatic brain injury at a neurointensive care unit. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate the risk of inducing high intracranial pressure (ICP) related to interventions and whether intracranial compliance, baseline ICP, or autoregulation could be used as predictors. METHODS: The study had a quantitative, prospective, observational design. Twenty-eight patients with TBI were included, and 67 interventions were observed. The definition of a secondary ICP insult was ICP of 20 mm Hg or greater for 5 minutes or more within a continuous 10-minute period. RESULTS: Secondary ICP insults related to nursing interventions occurred in 6 patients (21%) and 8 occasions (12%). Patients with baseline ICP of 15 mm Hg or greater had 4.7 times higher risk of developing an insult. The predictor with the best combination of sensitivity and specificity was baseline ICP. CONCLUSIONS: Baseline ICP of 15 mm Hg or greater was the most important factor to determine the risk of secondary ICP insult related to nursing intervention.

Chapter 5 cerebral perfusion pressure and intracranial pressure in traumatic brain injury.

Nearly 300,000 children and adults are hospitalized annually with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and monitored for many vital signs, including intracranial pressure (ICP) and cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP). Nurses use these monitored values to infer the risk of secondary brain injury. The purpose of this chapter is to review nursing research on the monitoring of ICP and CPP in TBI. In this context, nursing research is defined as the research conducted by nurse investigators or research about the variables ICP and CPP that pertains to the nursing care of the TBI patient, adult or child. A modified systematic review of the literature indicated that, except for sharp head rotation and prone positioning, there are no body positions or nursing activities that uniformly or nearly uniformly result in clinically relevant ICP increase or decrease. In the smaller number of studies in which CPP is also measured, there are few changes in CPP since arterial blood pressure generally increases along with ICP. Considerable individual variation occurs in controlled studies, suggesting that clinicians need to pay close attention to the cerebrodynamic responses of each patient to any care maneuver. We recommend that future research regarding nursing care and ICP/CPP in TBI patients needs to have a more integrated approach, examining comprehensive care in relation to short- and long-term outcomes and incorporating multimodality monitoring. Intervention trials of care aspects within nursing control, such as the reduction of environmental noise, early mobilization, and reduction of complications of immobility, are all sorely needed.

An alphabetical mnemonic teaching strategy for constructing nursing care plans.

The strategy of mnemonics has long been used as an aid to learning biology, physiology, pathophysiology, and health assessment in nursing. An application of an alphabetical mnemonics strategy to teaching and learning nursing processes and constructing care plans has been explored for patients with increased intracranial pressure (ICP), hepatic failure, and chronic renal failure. A specific application of this strategy for teaching care planning for patients with ICP is described. Student feedback appears to be positive, and reviews of the teaching-learning experience have received approval in students' evaluation of instruction. The mnemonics strategy presented has the potential for applicability and transferability to other areas of nursing care planning and other course contexts.

The effect of oral care on intracranial pressure in critically ill adults.

A major goal in the care of patients with neurological problems is to prevent or minimize episodes of increased intracranial pressure (ICP). Elevations in ICP in response to nursing interventions have been acknowledged since the 1960s when ICP monitoring was first introduced in the clinical setting. Until recently, few studies have specifically examined the effect of oral care on ICP, and oral care and other hygiene measures were combined or not specified, prohibiting a direct interpretation of the influence of oral care alone on ICP. The purpose of this study was to describe the relationship between routine oral care interventions and the changes in ICP specifically focusing on the effect of intensity and duration of this intervention. Twenty-three patients with a clinical condition requiring ICP monitoring were enrolled over a 12-month period. Oral care provided by neuroscience intensive care nurses was observed and videotaped. Characteristics of the intervention were documented including products used, patient positioning, and duration of the intervention. A 1-5 subjective scale was used to score intensity of oral care. Wrist actigraphy data were collected from the nurses to provide an objective measure of intensity. Patient physiologic data were collected at 12-second epochs 5 minutes before, during, and 5 minutes after oral care. The mixed-effect repeated measures analysis of variance model indicated that there was a statistically significant increase in ICP in response to oral care (p = .0031). There was, however, no clinically significant effect on ICP. This study provides evidence that oral care is safe to perform in patients in the absence of preexisting elevated ICP.

Secondary insults related to nursing interventions in neurointensive care: a descriptive pilot study.

The patients at a neurointensive care unit are frequently cared for in many ways, day and night. The aim of this study was to investigate the amount of secondary insults related to oral care, repositioning, endotracheal suctioning, hygienic measures, and simultaneous interventions at a neurointensive care unit with standardized care and maximum attention on avoiding secondary insults. The definition of a secondary insult was intracranial pressure > 20 mm Hg, cerebral perfusion pressure < 60 mm Hg and systolic blood pressure < 100 mm Hg for 5 minutes or more in a 10-minute period starting from when the nursing intervention began. The insult minutes did not have to be consecutive. The study included 18 patients, seven women and 11 men, aged 36-76 years with different neurosurgical diagnoses. The total number of nursing interventions analyzed was 1,717. The most common kind of secondary insults after a nursing measure was high intracranial pressure (n = 93) followed by low cerebral perfusion pressure (n = 43) and low systolic blood pressure (n = 14). Repositioning (n = 39) and simultaneous interventions (n = 32) were the nursing interventions causing most secondary insults. There were substantial variations between the patients; only one patient had no secondary insult. There were, overall, a limited number of secondary insults related to nursing interventions when a standardized management protocol system was applied to reduce the occurrence of secondary insults. Patients with an increased risk of secondary insults should be recognized, and their care and treatment should be carefully planned and performed to avoid secondary insults.

Neurocritical care: why does it make a difference?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The care of critically ill brain-injured patients is complex and requires careful balancing of cerebral and systemic treatment priorities. A growing number of studies have reported improved outcomes when patients are admitted to dedicated neurocritical care units (NCCUs). The reasons for this observation have not been definitively clarified. RECENT FINDINGS: When recently published articles are combined with older literature, there have been more than 40 000 patients assessed in observational studies that compare neurological and general ICUs. Although results are heterogeneous, admission to NCCUs is associated with lower mortality and a greater chance of favorable recovery. These findings are remarkable considering that there are few interventions in neurocritical care that have been demonstrated to be efficacious in randomized trials. Whether the relationship is causal is still being elucidated but potential explanations include higher patient volume and, in turn, greater clinician experience; more emphasis on and adherence to protocols to avoid secondary brain injury; practice differences related to prognostication and withdrawal of life-sustaining interventions; and differences in the use and interpretation of neuroimaging and neuromonitoring data. SUMMARY: Neurocritical care is an evolving field that is associated with improvements in outcomes over the past decade. Further research is required to determine how monitoring and treatment protocols can be optimized.

Managing children with raised intracranial pressure: part one (introduction and meningitis).

Intracranial pathologies in children need urgent identification and management. This article is presented in two parts, with part one describing intracranial pressure and outlining the features and management of meningitis. Part two, to be published in February 2014, outlines the features and management of brain tumours and intracranial bleeds. Each condition is accompanied by an illustrative case study to give an idea of what nurses might encounter in a child presenting with raised intracranial pressure.

Significant practice pattern variations associated with intracranial pressure monitoring.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to describe nursing practice in the care of patients with intracranial pressure monitoring. Although standards for care of such patients have been established, there continue to be variations in the nursing practice. METHODS: This was an observational study in which data were collected from 28 nurse-patient dyads at 16 different hospitals across the United States. Each dyad was observed for 2 hours; nursing actions and patient responses including intracranial pressure readings were documented. RESULTS: Differences in the care of patients with intracranial pressure monitoring were prevalent. Variations in practice were prompted by healthcare provider prescriptions as well as nursing decisions. Prescriptions and interventions were often not supported by the available scientific evidence. VIDEO ABSTRACT: For more insights from the authors, see Supplemental Digital Content 1, at http://links.lww.com/JNN/A7.

[Clinical evaluation and nursing management of a patient with decreased intracranial adaptive capacity].

Decreased intracranial adaptive capacity is one of the most common neurological problems in critically ill patients. It is the main cause of intracranial hypertension and, if not handled properly, is likely to negatively affect patient prognoses and may lead to further brain injury or death. This article describes concepts related to the mechanisms that cause decreased intracranial adaptive capacity and related factors. This article may provide a guide for clinical evaluation and nursing management. We hope to increase nursing staff knowledge to ensure they take the clinical management action necessary to prevent intracranial hypertension and provide optimal patient treatment and prognosis.

Hypertonic saline: a change of practice.

BACKGROUND: This practice development review describes how the introduction of hypertonic saline in the treatment of raised intracranial pressure was brought about in one critical care unit. It considers the need for staff education and patient safety as an integral part of the change process. AIM: The aim was to review making a practice change, using Lewin's three step change model and describes possible pitfalls in the process and ways of overcoming or avoiding them. METHODS: The inclusion criterion for critiqued literature was: Worldwide, English language studies from the last 26 years. Exclusion was articles from non-academically recognized sources. The search was limited to primary and empirical sources. DISCUSSION: This article uses Lewin's change model to describe driving and restraining forces, highlighting potential problems and suggesting ways in which they can be overcome when implementing a change in practice. Critical to the success of any change is the importance of evaluation, and suitable methods of evaluating the change are also suggested. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Critical care and neurosurgical nurses need to be aware of the potentially serious side effects, actions and correct methods of administration of hypertonic saline to ensure its safe use and ensure patient safety. Effects and side effects of hypertonic saline are described, highlighting the need for care in introducing such agents into a clinical area. The methodology used was an electronic search. The change in practice relates to the introduction of hypertonic saline, but could be adapted for any change in clinical nursing practice.

The effect of oral care on intracranial pressure: a review of the literature.

Neuroscience intensive care unit nurses routinely perform oral care on patients with intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring. When the ICP is elevated or rises in response to oral care, this intervention may be withheld despite the lack of evidence linking the two. To appraise the best evidence for providing oral care to patients with ICP monitoring, articles published in English from 1978 to 2009 and indexed in CINHAL, PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochran Library, and BioSys were searched using the key terms ICP monitoring, intracranial hypertension, oral care, mouth care, hygiene, nursing interventions, nursing care, intensive care, and critical care. Reference lists of retrieved articles were reviewed for articles missed during the initial search. The search yielded 65 articles: 16 experimental or quasi-experimental studies, 24 descriptive studies, and 25 review articles. Of these, only four specifically tested or described the effect of oral care on ICP. There is a need for more knowledge about the effect of oral care on ICP so that evidence-based oral care practices in this patient population can be defined.

The effect of nursing interventions on the intracranial pressure in paediatric traumatic brain injury.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: The aim of this research was to investigate the effect of five selected intensive care nursing interventions on the intracranial pressure (ICP) of moderate to severe traumatic brain-injured children in intensive care. BACKGROUND: The physiological effects of many nursing interventions in paediatric intensive care (PIC) are not known. This results in the lack of an evidence base for many PIC nursing practices. DESIGN: Prospective observational cohort study conducted over 3 years in a single tertiary referral paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) in the North West of England. METHODS: Five selected commonly performed nursing interventions were studied: endotracheal suctioning and manual ventilation (ETSMV), turning via a log-rolling (LR) approach, eye care, oral care and washing. These were studied in the first 72 h after injury. RESULTS: A total of 25 children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury and intraparenchymal ICP monitoring in intensive care (aged 2-17 years) were enrolled. Both ETSMV and LR were associated with clinically and statistically significant changes in ICP from baseline to maximal ICP (p = 0·001 ETSMV; p = < 0·001 LR) and from maximal post-ICP (p = < 0·001 ETSMV; p = < 0.001 LR). Eye care, oral care or washing did not cause any clinically significant change in ICP from baseline. After decompressive craniectomy, none of the interventions caused significant changes in ICP. CONCLUSIONS: Only two of the five nursing interventions, endotracheal suctioning and LR, caused intracranial hypertension in moderate to severe traumatic brain-injured children, and after craniectomy, no care interventions caused any significant change in ICP. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Knowledge about the physiological effects of many intensive care nursing interventions is lacking and this is magnified in paediatrics. This study provides a significant addition to the evidence base in this area and allows intensive care nurses to plan, implement and evaluate more effectively their nursing care for brain-injured children.

Traumatic brain injury and increased intracranial pressure.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects approximately 1.4 million individuals and has a mortality rate greater than 30% in the first 72 hours after injury. The patient with TBI can present a significant challenge for the perianesthesia nurse in the acute care setting. Increased intracranial pressure is a common consequence of TBI and the rapid assessment and management can affect the long term outcome of the patient with TBI. New monitoring modalities have been developed to monitor cerebral blood flow and nutritional supply to neurologic tissues. A case scenario will be used to identify priorities for the perianesthesia nurse caring for this challenging patient.