Assessing proteases and enzymes of the trypanothione system in subpopulations of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis Thor strain during macrophage infection.

BACKGROUND: Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis Thor strain exhibits a heterogeneous composition comprised of subpopulations with varying levels of infectivity. Clonal subpopulations were previously obtained from the strain Thor by sorting single-parasites and proceeding cultivation. The subpopulations used in this study are named Thor03, Thor 10 and Thor22. OBJECTIVES: Phenotypic characteristics of the parasite, specially focusing on virulence factors and resistance to the antimicrobial mechanisms of macrophages, were investigate in these subpopulations. METHODS: Cellular and molecular biology, as well as biochemistry approaches were applied to obtain the data analysed in this study. FINDINGS: Relative quantification of gene expression was measured for calpain, cysteine protease B (CPB), and subtilisin proteases but no significant differences in these genes' expression among subpopulations was observed. However, subtilisin and CPB proteins were assessed as more abundant in Thor03 by fluorescence-labelled flow cytometry technique. Western Blotting assays, as semi-quantitative analysis in gel, showed higher concentrations of subtilisin (110 to 50 kDa) and CPB (40 to 18 kDa) in extract of intracellular amastigotes from subpopulations Thor03 and Thor10 and calpain (60 to 25 kDa) showed no significant differences among subpopulations. Complementary, higher trypanothione reductase activity was observed in Thor10 intracellular amastigotes and assays of susceptibility to hydrogen peroxide-inducing agents and nitric oxide donors conducted with promastigotes revealed greater resistance to in vitro oxidative stress induction for Thor10, followed by Thor03. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: The data obtained for the virulence factors explored here suggest how multiple coexisting phenotypic-distinct subpopulations may contribute in adaptability of a single L. (V.) braziliensis strain during infection in the host cells.

Novel Insights Into Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis In Vitro Fitness Guided by Temperature Changes Along With Its Subtilisins and Oligopeptidase B.

Proteases are virulence factors with a recognized impact on the Leishmania spp. life cycle. This study considers a set of analyses measuring phenotypic factors of L. (V.) braziliensis clinical isolates as promastigotes growth curves, murine peritoneal macrophages infection, inflammatory mediators production, and serine proteases gene expression (subtilisin 13: S13, subtilisin 28: S28, oligopeptidase B: OPB) assessing these isolates' fitness on in vitro conditions. Parasites had different behavior during the early growth phase from day zero to day three, and all isolates reached the stationary growth phase between days four and seven. Macrophages infection showed two tendencies, one of decreased infection rate and number of parasites per macrophage (Infection Index <1000) and another with a constant infection index (≥1400). TNF-α (≥10 pg/mL) detected in infections by 75% of isolates, IL-6 (≥80 pg/mL) by 30% of isolates and low levels of NO (≥0.01µM) in almost all infections. Gene expression showed higher values of S13 (≥2RQ) in the intracellular amastigotes of all the isolates evaluated. On the contrary, S28 expression was low (≤1RQ) in all isolates. OPB expression was different between promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes, being significantly higher (≥2RQ) in the latter form of 58% of the isolates. Predictive structural assays of S13 and OPB were performed to explore temperature influence on gene expression and the encoded proteases. Gene expression data is discussed based on in silico predictions of regulatory regions that show plasticity in the linearity index of secondary structures of S13 and OPB 3'-untranslated regions of mRNA, dependent on temperature changes. While hairpin structures suggest an active region of mRNA for both genes above 26°C, pseudoknot structure found in S13 is an indication of a particular profile of this gene at mammalian host temperatures (37°C). Furthermore, the predicted 3D structures are in accordance with the influence of these temperatures on the catalytic site stability of both enzymes, favoring their action over peptide substrates. Data gathered here suggest that L. (V.) braziliensis serine proteases can be influenced by the temperature conditions affecting parasite fitness throughout its life cycle.

Cross-linking mass spectrometry reveals structural insights of the glutamine synthetase from Leishmania braziliensis.

BACKGROUND: Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by the parasite Leishmania braziliensis, commonly found in Brazil and associated with cutaneous and visceral forms of this disease. Like other organisms, L. braziliensis has an enzyme called glutamine synthetase (LbGS) that acts on the synthesis of glutamine from glutamate. This enzyme plays an essential role in the metabolism of these parasites and can be a potential therapeutic target for treating this disease. OBJECTIVES: Investigate LbGS structure and generate structural models of the protein. METHODS: We use the method of crosslinking mass spectrometry (XLMS) and generate structural models in silico using I-TASSER. FINDINGS: 42 XLs peptides were identified, of which 37 are explained in a monomeric model with the other five indicating LbGS dimerization and pentamers interaction region. The comparison of 3D models generated in the presence and absence of XLMS restrictions probed the benefits of modeling with XLMS highlighting the inappropriate folding due to the absence of spatial restrictions. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, we disclose the conservation of the active site and interface regions, but also unique features of LbGS showing the potential of XLMS to probe structural information and explore new drugs.

Serine proteases profiles of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis clinical isolates with distinct susceptibilities to antimony.

Glucantime (SbV) is the first-line treatment against American Tegumentary Leishmaniasis. Resistance cases to this drug have been reported and related to host characteristics and parasite phenotypes. In this study, 12 Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis isolates from patients that presented clinical cure (Responders-R) and relapse or therapeutic failure (Non-responders-NR) after treatment with antimony, were analyzed. These parasites were assessed by in vitro susceptibility to SbIII and SbV, serine proteases activity measured with substrate (z-FR-AMC) and specific inhibitors (TLCK, AEBSF and PMSF). In vitro susceptibility of axenic amastigotes to SbIII showed a significant difference between R and NR groups. The protease assays showed that TLCK inhibited almost 100% of activity in both axenic amastigotes and promastigotes while AEBSF inhibited around 70%, and PMSF showed lower inhibition of some isolates. Principal component and clustering analysis performed with these data yielded one homogeneous cluster with only NR isolates and three heterogeneous clusters with R and NR isolates. Additionally, differential expression of subtilisins (LbrM.13.0860 and LbrM.28.2570) and TXNPx (LbrM.15.1080) was evaluated in promastigotes and axenic amastigotes from both groups. The results showed a higher expression of LbrM.13.0860 and LbrM.15.1080 genes in axenic amastigotes, while LbrM.28.2570 gene had the lowest expression in all isolates, regardless of the parasite form. The data presented here show a phenotypic heterogeneity among the parasites, suggesting that exploration of in vitro phenotypes based on SbIII and serine proteases profiles can aid in the characterization of L. (V.) braziliensis clinical isolates.

Constitutive nitric oxide synthase-like enzyme in two species involved in cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis.

Leishmania is an obligate intracellular parasite that primarily inhabits macrophages. The destruction of the parasite in the host cell is a fundamental mechanism for infection control. In addition, inhibition of the leishmanicidal activity of macrophages seems to be related to the ability of some species to inhibit the production of nitric oxide (NO) by depleting arginine. Some species of Leishmania have the ability to produce NO from a constitutive nitric oxide synthase-like enzyme (cNOS-like). However, the localization of cNOS-like in Leishmania has not been described before. As such, this study was designed to locate cNOS-like enzyme and NO production in promastigotes of Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis and Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. NO production was initially quantified by flow cytometry, which indicated a significant difference in NO production between L. (L.) amazonensis (GMFC = 92.17 +/- 4.6) and L. (V.) braziliensis (GMFC = 18.89 +/- 2.29) (P < 0.05). Analysis of cNOS expression by immunoblotting showed more expression in L. (L.) amazonensis versus L. (V.) braziliensis. Subsequently, cNOS-like immunolabeling was observed in promastigotes in regions near vesicles, the flagellar pocket and mitochondria, and small clusters of particles appeared to be fusing with vesicles suggestive of glycosomes, peroxisome-like-organelles that compartmentalize the glycolytic pathway in trypanosomatid parasites. In addition, confocal microscopy analysis demonstrated colocalization of cNOS-like and GAPDH, a specific marker for glycosomes. Thus, L. (L.) amazonensis produces greater amounts of NO than L. (V.) braziliensis, and both species present the cNOS-like enzyme inside glycosomes.

Histone deacetylases inhibitors as new potential drugs against Leishmania braziliensis, the main causative agent of new world tegumentary leishmaniasis.

The protozoan parasite Leishmania braziliensis is a major causative agent of the neglected tropical diseases Cutaneous and Mucocutaneous Leishmaniases in the New World. There are no vaccines to prevent the infection and the treatment relies on few drugs that often display high toxicity and costs. Thus, chemotherapeutic alternatives are required. Histone Deacetylases (HDACs) are epigenetic enzymes involved in the control of chromatin structure. In this work, we tested an in-house library of 78 hydroxamic acid derivatives as putative inhibitors of L. braziliensis HDACs (HDACi). The compounds were evaluated in relation to the toxicity to the host cell macrophage and to the leishmanicidal effect against L. braziliensis during in vitro infection. Eight HDACi showed significant leishmanicidal effects and the top 5 compounds showed effective concentrations (EC50) in the range of 4.38 to 10.21 µM and selectivity indexes (SI) from of 6 to 21.7. Analyses by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) indicated induction of apoptotic cell death of L. braziliensis amastigotes with a necrotic phenotype. An altered chromatin condensation pattern and cellular disorganization of intracellular amastigotes was also observed. A tight connection between the mitochondrion and nuclear protrusions, presumably of endoplasmic reticulum origin, was found in parasites but not in the host cell. In flow cytometry (FC) analyses, HDACi promoted parasite cell cycle arrest in the G2-M phase and no changes were found in macrophages. In addition, the direct effect of HDACi against the promastigotes showed apoptosis as the main mechanism of cell death. The FC results corroborate the TEM analyses indicating that the HDACi lead to changes in the cell cycle and induction of apoptosis of L. braziliensis. The production of nitric oxide by the infected macrophages was not altered after treatment with the top 5 compounds. Taken together, our results evidenced new HDACi as promising agents for the development of new treatments for American Tegumentary Leishmaniasis caused by L. braziliensis.

The heterologous expression of Escherichia coli MutT enzyme is involved in the protection against oxidative stress in Leishmania braziliensis.

BACKGROUND Oxidative stress is responsible for generating DNA lesions and the 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG) is the most commonly lesion found in DNA damage. When this base is incorporated during DNA replication, it could generate double-strand DNA breaks and cellular death. MutT enzyme hydrolyzes the 8-oxoG from the nucleotide pool, preventing its incorporation during DNA replication. OBJECTIVES To investigate the importance of 8-oxoG in Leishmania infantum and L. braziliensis, in this study we analysed the impact of heterologous expression of Escherichia coli MutT (EcMutT) enzyme in drug-resistance phenotype and defense against oxidative stress. METHODS Comparative analysis of L. braziliensis and L. infantum H2O2 tolerance and cell cycle profile were performed. Lines of L. braziliensis and L. infantum expressing EcMutT were generated and evaluated using susceptibility tests to H2O2 and SbIII, cell cycle analysis, γH2A western blotting, and BrdU native detection assay. FINDINGS Comparative analysis of tolerance to oxidative stress generated by H2O2 showed that L. infantum is more tolerant to exogenous H2O2 than L. braziliensis. In addition, cell cycle analysis showed that L. infantum, after treatment with H2O2, remains in G1 phase, returning to its normal growth rate after 72 h. In contrast, after treatment with H2O2, L. braziliensis parasites continue to move to the next stages of the cell cycle. Expression of the E. coli MutT gene in L. braziliensis and L. infantum does not interfere in parasite growth or in susceptibility to SbIII. Interestingly, we observed that L. braziliensis EcMutT-expressing clones were more tolerant to H2O2 treatment, presented lower activation of γH2A, a biomarker of genotoxic stress, and lower replication stress than its parental non-transfected parasites. In contrast, the EcMutT is not involved in protection against oxidative stress generated by H2O2 in L. infantum. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our results showed that 8-oxoG clearance in L. braziliensis is important to avoid misincorporation during DNA replication after oxidative stress generated by H2O2.

Antileishmanial activity evaluation of thiazolidine-2,4-dione against Leishmania infantum and Leishmania braziliensis.

Leishmaniasis is responsible for approximately 65,000 annual deaths. Despite the mortality data, drugs available for the treatment of patients are insufficient and have moderate therapeutic efficacy in addition to serious adverse effects, which makes the development of new drugs urgent. To achieve this goal, the integration of kinetic and DSF assays against parasitic validated targets, along with phenotypic assays, can help the identification and optimization of bioactive compounds. Pteridine reductase 1 (PTR1), a validated target in Leishmania sp., is responsible for the reduction of folate and biopterin to tetrahydrofolate and tetrahydrobiopterin, respectively, both of which are essential for cell growth. In addition to the in vitro evaluation of 16 thiazolidine-2,4-dione derivatives against Leishmania major PTR1 (LmPTR1), using the differential scanning fluorimetry (ThermoFluor®), phenotypic assays were employed to evaluate the compound effect over Leishmania braziliensis (MHOM/BR/75/M2903) and Leishmania infantum (MHOM/BR/74/PP75) promastigotes viability. The ThermoFluor® results show that thiazolidine-2,4-dione derivatives have micromolar affinity to the target and equivalent activity on Leishmania cells. 2b is the most potent compound against L. infantum (EC50 = 23.45 ± 4.54 µM), whereas 2a is the most potent against L. braziliensis (EC50 = 44.16 ± 5.77 µM). This result suggests that lipophilic substituents on either-meta and/or-para positions of the benzylidene ring increase the potency against L. infantum. On the other hand, compound 2c (CE50 = 49.22 ± 7.71 µM) presented the highest selectivity index.

Leishmania braziliensis prostaglandin F2α synthase impacts host infection.

BACKGROUND: Prostaglandins (PG) are lipid mediators derived from arachidonic acid metabolism. They are involved in cellular processes such as inflammation and tissue homeostasis. PG production is not restricted to multicellular organisms. Trypanosomatids also synthesize several metabolites of arachidonic acid. Nevertheless, their biological role in these early-branching parasites and their role in host-parasite interaction are not well elucidated. Prostaglandin F2α synthase (PGF2S) has been observed in the Leishmania braziliensis secreted proteome and in L. donovani extracellular vesicles. Furthermore, we previously reported a positive correlation between L. braziliensis PGF2S (LbrPGF2S) expression and pathogenicity in mice. METHODS: LbrPGF2S gene expression and PGF2α synthesis in promastigotes were detected and quantified by western blotting and EIA assay kit, respectively. To investigate LbrPGF2S localization in amastigotes during bone marrow-derived macrophage infection, parasites expressing mCherry-LbrPGF2S were generated and followed by time-lapse imaging for 48 h post-infection. PGF2S homolog sequences from Leishmania and humans were analyzed in silico using ClustalW on Geneious v6 and EMBOSS Needle. RESULTS: Leishmania braziliensis promastigotes synthesize prostaglandin F2α in the presence of arachidonic acid, with peak production in the stationary growth phase under heat stress. LbrPGF2S is a cytoplasmic protein enriched in the secretory site of the parasite cell body, the flagellar pocket. It is an enzyme constitutively expressed throughout promastigote development, but overexpression of LbrPGF2S leads to an increase of infectivity in vitro. The data suggest that LbrPGF2S may be released from intracellular amastigotes into the cytoplasm of bone marrow-derived macrophages over a 48-hour infection period, using time-lapse microscopy and mCherry-PGF2S (mChPGF2S)-expressing parasites. CONCLUSIONS: LbrPGF2S, a parasite-derived protein, is targeted to the host cell cytoplasm. The putative transfer of this enzyme, involved in pro-inflammatory lipid mediator synthesis, to the host cell suggests a potential role in host-parasite interaction and may partially explain the increased pathogenicity associated with overexpression of LbrPGF2S in L. braziliensis. Our data provide valuable insights to help understand the importance of parasite-derived lipid mediators in pathogenesis.

The heterologous expression of Escherichia coli MutT enzyme is involved in the protection against oxidative stress in Leishmania braziliensis

BACKGROUND Oxidative stress is responsible for generating DNA lesions and the 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG) is the most commonly lesion found in DNA damage. When this base is incorporated during DNA replication, it could generate double-strand DNA breaks and cellular death. MutT enzyme hydrolyzes the 8-oxoG from the nucleotide pool, preventing its incorporation during DNA replication. OBJECTIVES To investigate the importance of 8-oxoG in Leishmania infantum and L. braziliensis, in this study we analysed the impact of heterologous expression of Escherichia coli MutT (EcMutT) enzyme in drug-resistance phenotype and defense against oxidative stress. METHODS Comparative analysis of L. braziliensis and L. infantum H2O2 tolerance and cell cycle profile were performed. Lines of L. braziliensis and L. infantum expressing EcMutT were generated and evaluated using susceptibility tests to H2O2 and SbIII, cell cycle analysis, γH2A western blotting, and BrdU native detection assay. FINDINGS Comparative analysis of tolerance to oxidative stress generated by H2O2 showed that L. infantum is more tolerant to exogenous H2O2 than L. braziliensis. In addition, cell cycle analysis showed that L. infantum, after treatment with H2O2, remains in G1 phase, returning to its normal growth rate after 72 h. In contrast, after treatment with H2O2, L. braziliensis parasites continue to move to the next stages of the cell cycle. Expression of the E. coli MutT gene in L. braziliensis and L. infantum does not interfere in parasite growth or in susceptibility to SbIII. Interestingly, we observed that L. braziliensis EcMutT-expressing clones were more tolerant to H2O2 treatment, presented lower activation of γH2A, a biomarker of genotoxic stress, and lower replication stress than its parental non-transfected parasites. In contrast, the EcMutT is not involved in protection against oxidative stress generated by H2O2 in L. infantum. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our results showed that 8-oxoG clearance in L. braziliensis is important to avoid misincorporation during DNA replication after oxidative stress generated by H2O2.

Recombinant Cysteine Proteinase B from Leishmania braziliensis and Its Domains: Promising Antigens for Serodiagnosis of Cutaneous and Visceral Leishmaniasis in Dogs.

Leishmaniasis represents a group of parasitic diseases caused by a protozoan of the genus Leishmania and is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Leishmaniasis is one of the major tropical neglected diseases, with 1.5 to 2 million new cases occurring annually. Diagnosis remains a challenge despite advances in parasitological, serological, and molecular methods. Dogs are an important host for the parasite and develop both visceral and cutaneous lesions. Our goal was to contribute to the diagnosis of canine cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) and visceral leishmaniasis (VL) using the recombinant cysteine proteinase B (F-CPB) from Leishmania braziliensis and its N- and C-terminal domains (N-CPB and C-CPB) as antigens in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Sera from dogs from Northwest Argentina diagnosed with CL were tested by ELISA against a supernatant of L. braziliensis lysate, the F-CPB protein, and its domains. We found values of sensitivity (Se) of 90.7%, 94.4%, and 94.3% and specificity (Sp) of 95.5%, 90.9%, and 91.3% for F-CPB and its N- and C-terminal domains, respectively. In sera from dogs diagnosed with VL from Northeast Argentina, we found Se of 93.3%, 73.3%, and 66.7% and Sp of 92.3%, 76.9%, and 88.5% for F-CPB and its N- and C-terminal domains, respectively. These results support CPB as a relevant antigen for canine leishmaniasis diagnosis in its different clinical presentations. More interestingly, the amino acid sequence of CPB showed high percentages of identity in several Leishmania species, suggesting that the CPB from L. braziliensis qualifies as a good antigen for the diagnosis of leishmaniasis caused by different species.

The impact of arginase activity on virulence factors of Leishmania amazonensis.

The outcome of Leishmania infection depends on the parasite species and the host immune response. Virulence factors have been extensively studied over the years in an effort to find efficient vaccines and/or treatments for Leishmania infection. Arginase activity in Leishmania has been described as an essential player for the polyamines pathway, impacting parasite replication and infectivity. Considering previous studies showing that the absence of arginase activity leads to low infectivity of Leishmania amazonensis, we reanalyzed transcriptomic data comparing both promastigotes and axenic amastigotes from L. amazonensis wild type (La-WT) and L. amazonensis arginase knockout (La-arg-) backgrounds. The analysis produced a new compilation of modulated transcripts that indicated the role of arginase not only in the polyamines pathway but also in the modulation of virulence factors involved in parasite recognition, growth and differentiation.

Serine Proteinases in Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis Promastigotes Have Distinct Subcellular Distributions and Expression.

Serine proteinases in Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis promastigotes were assessed in this work. This study included the investigation of the enzymatic activity of subcellular fractions obtained from benzamidine affinity chromatography, reverse transcription polymerase chain reactions, and in silico assays of subcellular localization of subtilisin. Promastigote serine proteinases showed gelatinolytic activity with molecular masses of 43 kDa to 170 kDa in the cytosolic fraction and 67 kDa to 170 kDa in the membranous fraction. Serine proteinase activities were detected using N-benzyloxycarbonyl-l-phenylalanyl-l-arginine 7-amino-4-methylcoumarin (Z-FR-AMC) and N-succinyl-l-alanine-l-phenylalanine-l-lysine 7-amino-4-methylcoumarin (Suc-AFK-AMC) as substrates in the cytosolic fraction (Z-FR-AMC = 392 ± 30 µmol.min-1 mg of protein-1 and Suc-AFK-AMC = 252 ± 20 µmol.min-1 mg of protein-1) and in the membranous fraction (Z-FR-AMC = 53 ± 5 µmol.min-1 mg of protein-1 and Suc-AFK-AMC = 63.6 ± 6.5 µmol.min-1 mg of protein-1). Enzyme specificity was shown by inhibition with aprotinin (19% to 80% inhibition) and phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (3% to 69%), depending on the subcellular fraction and substrate. The expression of subtilisin (LbrM.13.0860 and LbrM.28.2570) and tryparedoxin peroxidase (LbrM.15.1080) genes was observed by the detection of RNA transcripts 200 bp, 162 bp, and 166 bp long, respectively. Subsequent in silico assays showed LbrM.13.0860 can be located in the cytosol and LbrM.28.2570 in the membrane of the parasite. Data obtained here show the subcellular distribution and expression of serine proteinases, including the subtilisin-like serine proteinases in L. (V.) braziliensis promastigotes.

Protein-protein interactions of the nicotinamide/nicotinate mononucleotide adenylyltransferase of Leishmania braziliensis.

BACKGROUND: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) plays a central role in energy metabolism and integrates cellular metabolism with signalling and gene expression. NAD biosynthesis depends on the enzyme nicotinamide/nicotinate mononucleotide adenylyltransferase (NMNAT; EC: 2.7.7.1/18), in which converge the de novo and salvage pathways. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to analyse the protein-protein interactions (PPI) of NMNAT of Leishmania braziliensis (LbNMNAT) in promastigotes. METHODS: Transgenic lines of L. braziliensis promastigotes were established by transfection with the pSP72αneoαLbNMNAT-GFP vector. Soluble protein extracts were prepared, co-immunoprecipitation assays were performed, and the co-immunoprecipitates were analysed by mass spectrometry. Furthermore, bioinformatics tools such as network analysis were applied to generate a PPI network. FINDINGS: Proteins involved in protein folding, redox homeostasis, and translation were found to interact with the LbNMNAT protein. The PPI network indicated enzymes of the nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolic routes, as well as RNA-binding proteins, the latter being the point of convergence between our experimental and computational results. MAIN CONCLUSION: We constructed a model of PPI of LbNMNAT and showed its association with proteins involved in various functions such as protein folding, redox homeostasis, translation, and NAD synthesis.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of thiazole derivatives as LbSOD inhibitors.

Leishmaniasis is considered as one of the major neglected tropical diseases due to its magnitude and wide geographic distribution. Leishmania braziliensis, responsible for cutaneous leishmaniasis, is the most prevalent species in Brazil. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) belongs to the antioxidant pathway of the parasites and human host. Despite the differences between SOD of Leishmania braziliensis and human make this enzyme a promising target for drug development efforts. No medicinal chemistry effort has been made to identify LbSOD inhibitors. Herein, we show that thermal shift assays (TSA) and fluorescent protein-labeled assays (FPLA) can be employed as primary and secondary screens to achieve this goal. Moreover, we show that thiazole derivatives bind to LbSOD with micromolar affinity.

Mannosyltransferase (GPI-14) overexpression protects promastigote and amastigote forms of Leishmania braziliensis against trivalent antimony.

BACKGROUND: Glycosylphosphatidylinositol is a surface molecule important for host-parasite interactions. Mannosyltransferase (GPI-14) is an essential enzyme for adding mannose on the glycosylphosphatidyl group. This study attempted to overexpress the GPI-14 gene in Leishmania braziliensis to investigate its role in the antimony-resistance phenotype of this parasite. RESULTS: GPI-14 mRNA levels determined by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) showed an increased expression in clones transfected with GPI-14 compared to its respective wild-type line. In order to investigate the expression profile of the surface carbohydrates of these clones, the intensity of the fluorescence emitted by the parasites after concanavalin-A (a lectin that binds to the terminal regions of α-D-mannosyl and α-D-glucosyl residues) treatment was analyzed. The results showed that the clones transfected with GPI-14 express 2.8-fold more mannose and glucose residues than those of the wild-type parental line, indicating effective GPI-14 overexpression. Antimony susceptibility tests using promastigotes showed that clones overexpressing the GPI-14 enzyme are 2.4- and 10.5-fold more resistant to potassium antimonyl tartrate (SbIII) than the parental non-transfected line. Infection analysis using THP-1 macrophages showed that amastigotes from both GPI-14 overexpressing clones were 3-fold more resistant to SbIII than the wild-type line. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest the involvement of the GPI-14 enzyme in the SbIII-resistance phenotype of L. braziliensis.

Insights about resveratrol analogs against trypanothione reductase of Leishmania braziliensis: Molecular modeling, computational docking and in vitro antileishmanial studies.

In this work, we combined molecular modeling, computational docking and in vitro analysis to explore the antileishmanial effect of some resveratrol analogs (ResAn), focusing on their pro-oxidant effect. The molecular target was the trypanothione reductase of Leishmania braziliensis (LbTryR), an essential component of the antioxidant defenses in trypanosomatid parasites. Three-dimensional structures of LbTryR were modeled and molecular docking studies of ResAn1-5 compounds showed the following affinity: ResAn1 > ResAn2 > ResAn4 > ResAn5 > ResAn3. Positive correlation was observed between these compounds' affinity to the LbTryR and the IC50 values against Leishmania sp (ResAn1 < ResAn2 < ResAn4), which allows for TryR being considered an important target for them. As the compound ResAn1 showed the best antileishmanial activity, and docking studies showed its high affinity for NADP binding site (NS) of TryR, plus having been able to induce ROS production in L. braziliensis promastigotes treated, ResAn1 probably occupies NS interfering in the electron transfer processes responsible for the catalytic reaction. The in silico prediction of ADMET properties suggests that ResAn1 may be a promising drug candidate with properties to cross biological membranes and high gastrointestinal absorption, not violating Lipinski's rules. Ultimately, the antileishmanial effect of ResAn can be associated with a pro-oxidant effect which, in turn, can be exploited as an antimicrobial agent. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Structural studies of Old Yellow Enzyme of Leishmania braziliensis in solution.

First described in yeast in 1932 by Christian & Warburg, the Old Yellow Enzyme (OYE) (EC 1.6.99.1) has aroused the interest of the scientific community regarding its high ability to catalyze stereoselective reactions of α/ß-unsaturated carbonyl compounds with important industrial applications. In addition, the OYE family of proteins has been found in different organisms, such as plants, bacteria and protozoa, but not in mammals, which makes it an excellent candidate for a functional and molecular study aimed at more effective therapies with fewer undesirable side effects. Several OYE orthologues have been characterized; however, the real physiological role for most members of this family of proteins remains a mystery. In this paper, we present the structural studies of the OYE of Leishmania braziliensis. The findings are discussed in comparison with OYE of Trypanosoma cruzi, revealing some biophysical differences. The main differences are related to their chemical and thermal stabilities and behavior in solution. In addition, the L. braziliensis OYE shape is more elongated than that of the T. cruzi orthologue. Despite this, the active sites of these enzymes do not appear to have major differences, since their interactions with the substrate menadione occur with an affinity of the same order of magnitude, revealing that the binding sites in both proteins are essentially similar.

The crystal structure of glucokinase from Leishmania braziliensis.

Glucokinase from pathogenic protozoa of the genus Leishmania is a potential drug target for the chemotherapeutic treatment against leishmaniasis because this enzyme is located at a nodal point between two critically important metabolic pathways, glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). L. braziliensis glucokinase (LbGlcK) was evaluated for its structural characterization and enzymatic performance. The enzyme catalyzes the phosphorylation of d-glucose with co-substrate ATP to yield the products G6P and ADP. LbGlcK had KM values determined as 6.61 ± 2.63 mM and 0.338 ± 0.080 mM for d-glucose and ATP, respectively. The 1.85 Å resolution X-ray crystal structure of the apo form of LbGlcK was determined and a homodimer was revealed where each subunit (both in open conformations) included the typical small and large domains. Structural comparisons were assessed in relationship to Homo sapiens hexokinase IV and Trypanosoma cruzi glucokinase. Comparisons revealed that all residues important for making hydrogen bonding interactions with d-glucose in the active site and catalysis were strictly conserved. LbGlcK was screened against four glucosamine analogue inhibitors and the stronger inhibitor of the series, HPOP-GlcN, had a Ki value of 56.9 ± 16.6 µM that exhibited competitive inhibition. For the purpose of future structure-based drug design experimentation, L. braziliensis glucokinase was observed to be very similar to T. cruzi glucokinase even though there was a 44% protein sequence identity between the two enzymes.

Ascorbate peroxidase overexpression protects Leishmania braziliensis against trivalent antimony effects.

Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) is a redox enzyme of the trypanothione pathway that converts hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into water molecules. In the present study, the APX gene was overexpressed in Leishmania braziliensis to investigate its contribution to the trivalent antimony (SbIII)-resistance phenotype. Western blot results demonstrated that APX-overexpressing parasites had higher APX protein levels in comparison with the wild-type line (LbWTS). APX-overexpressing clones showed an 8-fold increase in the antimony-resistance index over the parental line. In addition, our results indicated that these clones were approximately 1.8-fold more tolerant to H2O2 than the LbWTS line, suggesting that the APX enzyme plays an important role in the defence against oxidative stress. Susceptibility tests revealed that APX-overexpressing L. braziliensis lines were more resistant to isoniazid, an antibacterial agent that interacts with APX. Interestingly, this compound enhanced the anti-leishmanial SbIII effect, indicating that this combination represents a good strategy for leishmaniasis chemotherapy. Our data demonstrate that APX enzyme is involved in the development of L. braziliensis antimony-resistance phenotype and may be an attractive therapeutic target in the design of new strategies for leishmaniasis treatment.