Economic impact of localized cutaneous leishmaniasis on adult patients of a referral service in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais State, Brazil.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a disease associated with low-income populations. Thus, in assessing the burden of this disease, it is important to include its economic impact on individuals. We aimed to evaluate CL economic impact on patients treated at a referral service in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. This is a cross-sectional study based on the analysis of interviews and medical records from which we assembled direct medical and non-medical costs related to CL, from a societal perspective. One hundred patients were included; 50% had a monthly per capita income of up to USD 259.60 and spent on average USD 187.32 with the disease, representing an average monthly impact of 22.5% (USD 133.80). The disease imposed direct medical costs, such as: private medical appointments, medications, medical exams, dressing material, and co-participation in health insurances. Direct non-medical costs were mainly related to patients' transportation to health centers (USD 4,911.00), but also included medically-necessary care, food, and domestic and business outsourcing services. Although the Brazilian public health system guarantees access to health care, CL still represents a substantial economic impact for patients. The main action to reduce the expenses with this disease is decentralizing services for CL diagnosis and therapeutic approach, as well as increasing their efficiency.

Economic impact of localized cutaneous leishmaniasis on adult patients of a referral service in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais State, Brazil / Impacto econômico da leishmaniose cutânea localizada em pacientes adultos em um serviço de referência em Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil / Impacto económico de la leishmaniosis cutánea localizada que afecta a pacientes adultos en un servicio de referencia en Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a disease associated with low-income populations. Thus, in assessing the burden of this disease, it is important to include its economic impact on individuals. We aimed to evaluate CL economic impact on patients treated at a referral service in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. This is a cross-sectional study based on the analysis of interviews and medical records from which we assembled direct medical and non-medical costs related to CL, from a societal perspective. One hundred patients were included; 50% had a monthly per capita income of up to USD 259.60 and spent on average USD 187.32 with the disease, representing an average monthly impact of 22.5% (USD 133.80). The disease imposed direct medical costs, such as: private medical appointments, medications, medical exams, dressing material, and co-participation in health insurances. Direct non-medical costs were mainly related to patients' transportation to health centers (USD 4,911.00), but also included medically-necessary care, food, and domestic and business outsourcing services. Although the Brazilian public health system guarantees access to health care, CL still represents a substantial economic impact for patients. The main action to reduce the expenses with this disease is decentralizing services for CL diagnosis and therapeutic approach, as well as increasing their efficiency.

A leishmaniose cutânea (LC) é uma doença associada a populações de baixa renda. Portanto, a inclusão do impacto financeiro sobre os pacientes é muito importante para avaliar a carga dessa doença. Tivemos como objetivo avaliar o impacto econômico da LC em pacientes afetados pela doença e tratados em um centro de referência para LC no Estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil. Foi um estudo transversal com base em análise de entrevistas e prontuários médicos para compilação dos gastos médicos e não médicos diretos relacionados à LC, desde uma perspectiva societal. Foram incluídos cem pacientes; 50% tinham renda mensal per capita de até USD 259,60. O gasto médio na doença foi de USD 187,32, o que representa um impacto mensal médio de 22,5% (USD 133,80). A doença impôs custos médicos diretos, como o pagamento por consultas médicas particulares, exames médicos, material para curativos e co-participação em seguro de saúde. Os custos não médicos diretos estiveram relacionados ao transporte dos pacientes até os centros de saúde, cuidados adicionais, alimentação e contratos com serviços terceirizados para atividades domésticas e laborais. O transporte dos pacientes para as consultas médicas representava a principal parcela dos gastos (USD 4.911,00). Embora o acesso à assistência à saúde seja um direito garantido pelo Sistema Único de Saúde, a LC ainda gera um impacto financeiro substancial para os pacientes. A descentralização dos serviços diagnósticos e terapêuticos para LC e o aumento de sua eficiência são as principais medidas que podem reduzir os gastos com essa doença.

La leishmaniosis cutánea (LC) es una enfermedad asociada a poblaciones con ingresos bajos. Por ello, incluir el impacto financiero para las personas es muy importante a la hora de evaluar la carga de esta enfermedad. Nuestro objetivo fue evaluar el impacto económico de la LC, de pacientes afectados por esta enfermedad, que fueron tratados por un servicio de referencia para el tratamiento de la LC en el Estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil. Este estudio transversal basado en entrevistas y análisis de registros médicos para la recopilación de gastos médicos y no-médicos directos, relacionados con la LC desde una a perspectiva social. Se incluyeron a cien pacientes; el 50% contaba con ingresos mensuales per cápita de hasta USD 259,60 y gastaban un promedio de USD 187,32 en la enfermedad, representando un impacto promedio mensual de 22,5% (USD 133,80). La enfermedad supuso costes médicos directos, como el pago de citas médicas privadas, medicamentos, exámenes médicos, material para vendajes, y coparticipación en seguros médicos. Los costes directos no-médicos estaban relacionados con el transporte de los pacientes a los centros de salud, el cuidado necesario, comida, y contratos con servicios externalizados para actividades domésticas y laborales. El transporte de los pacientes para citas médicas representó la principal razón para los gastos (USD 4.911,00). A pesar de que el acceso a los cuidados de salud es un derecho garantizado por el sistema de salud público brasileño, la LC todavía supone un impacto financiero importante para los pacientes. La descentralización de los servicios para el diagnóstico de LC, la aproximación terapéutica, y el incremento de su eficiencia, son las acciones con principal potencial para reducir los gastos financieros de esta enfermedad.

How cutaneous leishmaniasis and treatment impacts in the patients' lives: A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Until now, few studies have evaluated the effect of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) on patients' quality of life, and none have used a specific instrument to measure this effect. The objective of this study was to identify factors that may be associated with the high impact of CL and to assess patients' satisfaction with treatment and health services by utilizing a disease-specific questionnaire. METHODOLOGY: Between December 2015 and May 2017, 100 patients with localized cutaneous leishmaniasis were interviewed at a leishmaniasis referral center in Brazil. Data were collected by two questionnaires. One questionnaire compiled the sociodemographic, economic, and clinical information related to the disease. The second questionnaire was the Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Impact Questionnaire (CLIQ), which consisted of two subscales that measured 1) the general impact of CL and 2) patients' perceptions of treatment and health services. The median scores from each of these two subscales were used to dichotomize the dependent variables. Risk factors for the high impact of CL and for low patient satisfaction with treatment and health services were analyzed with a logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: The chance of higher impact of CL was increased in patients with the presence of comorbidities (OR: 3.9; CI 1.25-12.36), in those with absences from work (OR: 12.0; CI 3.78-42.55), in those who relied on public transportation by a municipal bus (OR: 5.8; CI 1.27-26.77), and in those who had illness-related expenses greater than U$137 (OR: 3.5; CI 1.17-10.24). The chance of patient dissatisfaction with treatment and health services increased with higher education (OR: 5.0; CI 1.19-21.03) and with illness-related expenses exceeding U$137 (OR: 4.64; CI 1.49-14.48). Once the sample was non-probabilistic, findings are not representative of CL patients in general. CONCLUSIONS: CL and its treatment have a negative impact on patients' quality of life. Considering these effects during public health planning may help patients to confront the disease.

Cost Effectiveness of New Diagnostic Tools for Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Afghanistan.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Cutaneous leishmaniasis is responsible for chronic and disfiguring skin lesions resulting in morbidity and social stigma. The gold standard to diagnose cutaneous leishmaniasis is microscopy but has a variable sensitivity and requires trained personnel. Using four scenarios, the objective of this study is to compare the cost effectiveness of microscopy with two new tools: Loopamp™ Leishmania Detection Kit (LAMP) and CL Detect™ Rapid Test (RDT). METHODS: Data related to the cost and accuracy of these tools were collected at the clinic of the National Malaria and Leishmaniasis Control Program in Kabul, Afghanistan. The effectiveness estimates were measured based on the tools' performance but also indirectly, using the disability-adjusted life years. A decision tree was designed in TreeAge Healthcare Pro 2016, combined with a Markov model representing the natural history of cutaneous leishmaniasis. In addition to a deterministic analysis, univariate sensitivity and probabilistic analyses were performed to test the robustness of the results. RESULTS: If the tools are compared at the National Malaria and Leishmaniasis Control Program level in a period of low incidence, microscopy remains the preferred option. LAMP becomes more appropriate during cutaneous leishmaniasis seasons or outbreaks when its capacity to process several tests (e.g. up to 48) at a time can be maximised. RDT has a cost similar to microscopy when used at the reference clinic but as it is relatively easy to use, it could be implemented at the peripheral level, which would become cheaper than employing microscopy at the reference clinic. Moreover, combining RDT with microscopy or LAMP at the reference clinic for the negative suspects is economically more interesting than directly performing LAMP or microscopy respectively on all cutaneous leishmaniasis suspects at the reference clinic. CONCLUSIONS: When taking advantage of their respective strengths, LAMP and RDT can prove to be cost-effective alternatives to using microscopy alone at the reference clinic.

The Economic Impact of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a neglected tropical disease which affects mainly the poorest communities in developing countries. Considering the limited published information on economic impact of CL in Sri Lanka, the current study was conducted with the objective of revealing the nature and magnitude of the economic impact of CL in three selected disease endemic regions in Kurunegala District, Sri Lanka. The patient records of CL notified of relevant Medical Officer of Health (MOH) office during 2013- 2016 were obtained. Patient households were visited and data collection was done using an interviewed administered questionnaire. The majority of patients (57%) were economically active at the time of infection. Of them, 65% were the only contributors to household economy. Total median costs including both direct and indirect costs were 66.85 USD (Rs. 10,831) (IQR = 57.26 - 86.78 USD), while total median economic loss to households was 61.27 USD (Rs. 9,927) (IQR= 49.61- 75.04 USD). From provider perspective, total median cost per patient was 22.83 USD (Rs. 3,696). The mean total economic loss was denoted as 65.26 USD (Rs. 10,572) which is about 5.4% of the annual household income and 20.9% of the mean annual per capita income of the study population. Although economic impact of CL infection is not catastrophic according to current interpretation, the infection may have significant economic impacts on households when considering the mean economic loss to household as a percentage of the mean annual per capita income of the population.

Health economic evaluation of moist wound care in chronic cutaneous leishmaniasis ulcers in Afghanistan.

BACKGROUND: The present health economic evaluation in Afghanistan aims to support public health decision makers and health care managers to allocate resources efficiently to appropriate treatments for cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) elicited by Leishmania tropica or Leishmania major. METHODS: A decision tree was used to analyse the cost and the effectiveness of two wound care regimens versus intra-lesional antimony in CL patients in Afghanistan. Costs were collected from a societal perspective. Effectiveness was measured in wound free days. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) and incremental net monetary benefit (NMB) were calculated. The model was parameterized with baseline parameters, sensitivity ranges, and parameter distributions. Finally, the model was simulated and results were evaluated with deterministic and probability sensitivity analyses. Final outcomes were the efficiency of the regimens and a budget impact analysis in the context of Afghanistan. RESULTS: Average costs per patients were US$ 11 (SE = 0.016) (Group I: Intra-dermal Sodium Stibogluconate [IL SSG]), US$ 16 (SE = 7.58) (Group II: Electro-thermo-debridement [ETD] + Moist wound treatment [MWT]) and US$ 25 (SE = 0.48) (Group III: MWT) in patients with a single chronic CL ulcer. From a societal perspective the budget impact analysis shows that the regimens' drug costs are lower than indirect disease cost. Average effectiveness in wound free days are 177 (SE = 0.36) in Group II, 147 (SE = 0.33) in Group III, and 129 (SE = 0.27) in Group I. The ICER of Group II versus Group I was US$ 0.09 and Group III versus Group I US$ 0.77, which is very cost-effective with a willingness-to-pay threshold of US$ 2 per wound free day. Within a Monte-Carlo probabilistic sensitivity analysis Group II was cost-effective in 80% of the cases starting at a willingness-to-pay of 80 cent per wound free day. CONCLUSIONS: Group II provided the most cost-effective treatment. The non-treatment alternative is not an option in the management of chronic CL ulcers. MWT of Group III should at least be practiced. The cost-effectiveness of Group III depends on the number of dressings necessary until complete wound closure.

Cost-effectiveness of meglumine antimoniate versus miltefosine caregiver DOT for the treatment of pediatric cutaneous leishmaniasis.

BACKGROUND: Oral miltefosine has been shown to be non-inferior to first-line, injectable meglumine antimoniate (MA) for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in children. Miltefosine may be administered via in-home caregiver Directly Observed Therapy (cDOT), while patients must travel to clinics to receive MA. We performed a cost-effectiveness analysis comparing miltefosine by cDOT versus MA for pediatric CL in southwest Colombia. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPLE FINDINGS: We developed a Monte Carlo model comparing the cost-per-cure of miltefosine by cDOT compared to MA from patient, government payer, and societal perspectives (societal = sum of patient and government payer perspective costs). Drug effectiveness and adverse events were estimated from clinical trials. Healthcare utilization and costs of travel were obtained from surveys of providers and published sources. The primary outcome was cost-per-cure reported in 2015 USD. Treatment efficacy, costs, and adherence were varied in sensitivity analysis to assess robustness of results. Treatment with miltefosine resulted in substantially lower cost-per-cure from a societal and patient perspective, and slightly higher cost-per-cure from a government payer perspective compared to MA. Mean societal cost-per-cure were $531 (SD±$239) for MA and $188 (SD±$100) for miltefosine, a mean cost-per-cure difference of +$343. Mean cost-per-cure from a patient perspective were $442 (SD ±$233) for MA and $30 (SD±$16) for miltefosine, a mean difference of +$412. Mean cost-per-cure from a government perspective were $89 (SD±$55) for MA and $158 (SD±$98) for miltefosine, with a mean difference of -$69. Results were robust across a variety of assumptions in univariate and multi-way analysis. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Treatment of pediatric cutaneous leishmaniasis with miltefosine via cDOT is cost saving from patient and societal perspectives, and moderately more costly from the government payer perspective compared to treatment with MA. Results were robust over a range of sensitivity analyses. Lower drug price for miltefosine could result in cost saving from a government perspective.

The impact of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-infection on the economic burden of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in Brazil and potential value of new CL drug treatments.

Convergence of geographic regions endemic for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) raise concerns that HIV co-infection may worsen CL burden, complicating already lengthy and costly CL treatments and highlighting a need for newer therapies. We constructed two Markov decision models to quantify impact of HIV on CL and help establish a target product profile for new CL treatments, accounting for co-infection. The HIV co-infection increased lifetime cost per CL case 11-371 times ($1,349-45,683) that of HIV-negative individuals ($123) and Brazil's CL burden from $1.6-16.0 million to $1.6-65.5 million. A new treatment could be a cost saving at ≤ $254 across several ranges (treatments seeking probabilities, side effect risks, cure rates) and continues to save costs up to $508 across treatment-seeking probabilities with a drug cure rate of ≥ 50%. The HIV co-infection can increase CL burden, suggesting more joint HIV and CL surveillance and control efforts are needed.

Low-cost thermotherapy for cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sindh, Pakistan.

OBJECTIVE: To study the efficacy of a low-cost heating pack device used for thermotherapy in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. METHODS: The study was conducted at the Department of Dermatology, Civil Hospital Sukkur, Pakistan, from April 20, 2012, to January 3, 2013. Thermotherapy with Hand-Held Exothermic Crystallisation Therapy for cutaneous leishmaniasis was performed on each lesion of the participating subjects at an average initial temperature of 51.6°C for 3 minutes daily for 7 days. Patients were followed regularly for 6 months after the therapy. SPSS 20 was used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: Even though all 27 patients completed 1 week of thermotherapy, only 23(85.2%) patients could be evaluated for full treatment response since 4(14.8%) were lost to complete follow-up. By the final 180-day evaluation, 19 (83%) patients had been cured. Applications were well tolerated with no side effects. CONCLUSION: The devise was a convenient, safe, non-toxic and effective treatment for cutaneous leishmaniasis at a fraction of the cost of standard antimonial treatment. Further studies are needed to certify its safety and efficacy as monotherapy for the condition.

Cost-effectiveness of prevention strategies for American tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina.

The aim of this study was to estimate the cost-effectiveness of reducing tegumentary leishmaniasis transmission using insecticide-impregnated clothing and curtains, and implementing training programs for early diagnosis. A societal perspective was adopted, with outcomes assessed in terms of costs per disability adjusted life years (DALY). Simulation was structured as a Markov model and costs were expressed in American dollars (US$). The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of each strategy was calculated. One-way and multivariate sensitivity analyses were performed. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for early diagnosis strategy was estimated at US$ 156.46 per DALY averted, while that of prevention of transmission with insecticide-impregnated curtains and clothing was US$ 13,155.52 per DALY averted. Both strategies were more sensitive to the natural incidence of leishmaniasis, to the effectiveness of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis treatment and to the cost of each strategy. Prevention of vectorial transmission and early diagnosis have proved to be cost-effective measures.

Cost-effectiveness of prevention strategies for American tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina / Custo-efetividade de estratégias de prevenção contra a leishmaniose tegumentar americana na Argentina / Coste-efectividad de estrategias de prevención contra la leishmaniasis tegumentaria americana en Argentina

The aim of this study was to estimate the cost-effectiveness of reducing tegumentary leishmaniasis transmission using insecticide-impregnated clothing and curtains, and implementing training programs for early diagnosis. A societal perspective was adopted, with outcomes assessed in terms of costs per disability adjusted life years (DALY). Simulation was structured as a Markov model and costs were expressed in American dollars (US$). The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of each strategy was calculated. One-way and multivariate sensitivity analyses were performed. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for early diagnosis strategy was estimated at US$ 156.46 per DALY averted, while that of prevention of transmission with insecticide-impregnated curtains and clothing was US$ 13,155.52 per DALY averted. Both strategies were more sensitive to the natural incidence of leishmaniasis, to the effectiveness of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis treatment and to the cost of each strategy. Prevention of vectorial transmission and early diagnosis have proved to be cost-effective measures.

O objetivo deste estudo foi estimar o custo-efetividade para reduzir a transmissão da leishmaniose tegumentar americana, utilizando roupas e cortinas impregnadas com inseticidas e implementando programas de treinamento para o diagnóstico precoce. Adotou-se uma perspectiva social, usando os anos de vida ajustados por incapacidade (AVAI). Estruturou-se uma simulação com o modelo de Markov. Os custos foram expressos em US$. A taxa de custo-efetividade incremental foi calculada para cada estratégia. Foi desenvolvida análise de sensibilidade, uni e multivariada. A taxa de custo- efetividade incremental para o diagnóstico precoce foi estimada em US$ 156,46 por AVAI evitado, enquanto a taxa para prevenção com roupas e cortinas impregnadas foi de US$ 13.155,53 por AVAI evitado. Ambas as estratégias foram mais sensíveis à incidência natural de leishmaniose, à efetividade do tratamento contra a leishmaniose mucocutânea e ao custo de cada estratégia. A prevenção da transmissão vetorial e o diagnóstico precoce provaram ser medidas custo-efetivos.

El objetivo de este estudio fue estimar el coste-efectividad de reducir la transmisión de la leishmaniasis tegumentaria americana utilizando ropas y cortinas impregnadas con insecticidas, e implementando programas de entrenamiento para el diagnostico temprano. Se adoptó una perspectiva social, utilizando los años de vida ajustados por discapacidad (AVAD). Se estructuró una simulación con un modelo de Markov. Los costes fueron expresados en dólares americanos (US$). La razón de coste-efectividad incremental fue calculada para cada estrategia. Se desarrollaron análisis de sensibilidad de una vía y multivariados. La razón de coste-efectividad incremental para el diagnóstico temprano fue estimada en US$ 156,46 por AVAD evitado, mientras que la razón de coste-efectividad incremental para la prevención con ropa y cortinas impregnadas fue de US$ 13.155,52 por AVAD evitado. Ambas estrategias fueron más sensibles a la incidencia natural de leishmaniasis, a la efectividad del tratamiento contra leishmaniasis mucosa y al coste de cada estrategia. La prevención de la transmisión vectorial y el diagnóstico temprano han probado ser medidas coste-efectivas.

The potential economic value of a cutaneous leishmaniasis vaccine in seven endemic countries in the Americas.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) and its associated complications, including mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL) and diffuse CL (DCL) have emerged as important neglected tropical diseases in Latin America, especially in areas associated with human migration, conflict, and recent deforestation. Because of the limitations of current chemotherapeutic approaches to CL, MCL, and DCL, several prototype vaccines are in different states of product and clinical development. We constructed and utilized a Markov decision analytic computer model to evaluate the potential economic value of a preventative CL vaccine in seven countries in Latin America: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela. The results indicated that even a vaccine with a relatively short duration of protection and modest efficacy could be recommended for use in targeted locations, as it could prevent a substantial number of cases at low-cost and potentially even result in cost savings. If the population in the seven countries were vaccinated using a vaccine that provides at least 10 years of protection, an estimated 41,000-144,784 CL cases could be averted, each at a cost less than the cost of current recommended treatments. Further, even a vaccine providing as little as five years duration of protection with as little as 50% efficacy remains cost-effective compared with chemotherapy; additional scenarios resembling epidemic settings such as the one that occurred in Chaparral, Colombia in 2004 demonstrate important economic benefits.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis: cryosurgery using carbon dioxide slush in a resource-poor country.

Leishmaniasis is a widespread parasitic disease seen most often in children and young adults, although it may occur at any age. In Yemen, up until now, specific treatment for cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) has been challenging. Available chemotherapy is expensive and replete with significant side effects. Standard cryosurgery with liquid nitrogen is prohibitively expensive and often unavailable. The objective of this paper is to highlight the importance of cryosurgery with carbon dioxide slush in the treatment of CL in an economically underdeveloped region as a cost-effective, simple, successful, and affordable option.

Economic consequences of post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis in a rural Bangladeshi community.

Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) is a complication of visceral leishmaniasis. Bangladesh national treatment guidelines during the study period called for 120 intramuscular injections of sodium antimony gluconate (SAG). We assessed care-seeking behavior, diagnosis and treatment costs, and coping strategies among 134 PKDL patients; 56 (42%) patients had been treated with SAG, and 78 (58%) remained untreated. The median direct cost per patient treated was US$367 (interquartile range [IQR] = 90-284), more than two times the estimated per capita annual income for the study population. The most common coping strategy was to take a loan; the median amount borrowed was US$98 (IQR = 71-150), with a median interest of US$32 (IQR = 16-95). Households lost a median of 123 work-days per patient treated. The current regimen for PKDL imposes a significant financial burden, reinforcing the link between poverty and visceral leishmaniasis. More practical shorter-course regimens for PKDL are urgently needed to achieve national and regional visceral leishmaniasis elimination goals.

The efficacy of thermotherapy to treat cutaneous leishmaniasis in Colombia: a comparative observational study in an operational setting.

An open label, comparative study to compare the efficacy of thermotherapy to meglumine antimoniate in treating cutaneous leishmaniasis patients in an operational context was carried out in Chaparral, Colombia. After enrollment patients were followed-up for up to 100 days. Per protocol and intention-to-treat cure rates for 47 patients treated using thermotherapy (one-time 50 degrees C applications for 30s) were 100 and 19%, respectively. Per protocol and intention-to-treat cure rates for meglumine antimoniate (20 mg/kg body weight administered intramuscularly for 21 d) were 78 and 23%, respectively.

Immunotherapy as a strategy for treatment of leishmaniasis: a review of the literature.

Leishmaniasis occurs as a spectrum of clinical syndromes divided into cutaneous, mucocutaneous and visceral forms. The epidemiology and clinical features are highly variable owing to the interplay of many factors ranging from parasite species and strains, vectors, host genetics and environment. Currently, there is no effective licensed vaccine for use in humans against leishmaniasis. Most traditional and low-cost treatment options, particularly in poor and endemic areas, are toxic with many adverse reactions and they require a long course of administration. The use of more effective, less toxic drugs is limited because total treatment cost is very high (expensive) and there are fears of development of drug resistance. Recent studies indicate that certain strategies aimed at modulating the host immune response (collectively called immunotherapy) could result in prophylactic and/or therapeutic cure of leishmaniasis under both laboratory and field conditions. In this review, we focus on treatment of leishmaniasis with a particular emphasis on immunotherapy/immunochemotherapy as an alternative to conventional drug treatment.

Leishmaniasis and poverty.

Leishmaniasis, a neglected tropical disease, has strong but complex links with poverty. The burden of leishmaniasis falls disproportionately on the poorest segments of the global population. Within endemic areas, increased infection risk is mediated through poor housing conditions and environmental sanitation, lack of personal protective measures and economically driven migration and employment that bring nonimmune hosts into contact with infected sand flies. Poverty is associated with poor nutrition and other infectious diseases, which increase the risk that a person (once infected) will progress to the clinically manifested disease. Lack of healthcare access causes delays in appropriate diagnosis and treatment and accentuates leishmaniasis morbidity and mortality, particularly in women. Leishmaniasis diagnosis and treatment are expensive and families must sell assets and take loans to pay for care, leading to further impoverishment and reinforcement of the vicious cycle of disease and poverty. Public investment in treatment and control would decrease the leishmaniasis disease burden and help to alleviate poverty.

Leishmaniasis: current situation and new perspectives.

Leishmaniasis represents a complex of diseases with an important clinical and epidemiological diversity. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is of higher priority than cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) as it is a fatal disease in the absence of treatment. Anthroponotic VL foci are of special concern as they are at the origin of frequent and deathly epidemics (e.g. Sudan). Leishmaniasis burden remains important: 88 countries, 350 million people at risk, 500,000 new cases of VL per year, 1-1.5 million for CL and DALYs: 2.4 millions. Most of the burden is concentrated on few countries which allows clear geographic priorities. Leishmaniasis is still an important public health problem due to not only environmental risk factors such as massive migrations, urbanisation, deforestation, new irrigation schemes, but also to individual risk factors: HIV, malnutrition, genetic, etc em leader Leishmaniasis is part of those diseases which still requires improved control tools. Consequently WHO/TDR research for leishmaniasis has been more and more focusing on the development of new tools such as diagnostic tests, drugs and vaccines. The ongoing effort has already produced significant results. The newly available control tools should allow a scaling up of control activities in priority areas. In anthroponotic foci, the feasibility of getting a strong impact on mortality, morbidity and transmission, is high.