In silico search of energy metabolism inhibitors for alternative leishmaniasis treatments.

Leishmaniasis is a complex disease that affects mammals and is caused by approximately 20 distinct protozoa from the genus Leishmania. Leishmaniasis is an endemic disease that exerts a large socioeconomic impact on poor and developing countries. The current treatment for leishmaniasis is complex, expensive, and poorly efficacious. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop more selective, less expensive new drugs. The energy metabolism pathways of Leishmania include several interesting targets for specific inhibitors. In the present study, we sought to establish which energy metabolism enzymes in Leishmania could be targets for inhibitors that have already been approved for the treatment of other diseases. We were able to identify 94 genes and 93 Leishmania energy metabolism targets. Using each gene's designation as a search criterion in the TriTrypDB database, we located the predicted peptide sequences, which in turn were used to interrogate the DrugBank, Therapeutic Target Database (TTD), and PubChem databases. We identified 44 putative targets of which 11 are predicted to be amenable to inhibition by drugs which have already been approved for use in humans for 11 of these targets. We propose that these drugs should be experimentally tested and potentially used in the treatment of leishmaniasis.

E-NTPDase (ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase) of Leishmania amazonensis inhibits macrophage activation.

Leishmania amazonensis, the causal agent of diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis, is known for its ability to modulate the host immune response. Because a relationship between ectonucleotidase activity and the ability of Leishmania to generate injury in C57BL/6 mice has been demonstrated, in this study we evaluated the involvement of ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase) activity of L. amazonensis in the process of infection of J774-macrophages. Our results show that high-activity parasites show increased survival rate in LPS/IFN-γ-activated cells, by inhibiting the host-cell NO production. Conversely, inhibition of E-NTPDase activity reduces the parasite survival rates, an effect associated with increased macrophage NO production. E-NTPDase activity generates substrate for the production of extracellular adenosine, which binds to A2B receptors and reduces IL-12 and TNF-α produced by activated macrophages, thus inhibiting NO production. These results indicate that E-NTPDase activity is important for survival of L. amazonensis within macrophages, showing the role of the enzyme in modulating macrophage response and lower NO production, which ultimately favors infection. Our results point to a new mechanism of L. amazonensis infection that may pave the way for the development of new treatments for this neglected disease.

Cheminformatic models based on machine learning for pyruvate kinase inhibitors of Leishmania mexicana.

BACKGROUND: Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease which affects approx. 12 million individuals worldwide and caused by parasite Leishmania. The current drugs used in the treatment of Leishmaniasis are highly toxic and has seen widespread emergence of drug resistant strains which necessitates the need for the development of new therapeutic options. The high throughput screen data available has made it possible to generate computational predictive models which have the ability to assess the active scaffolds in a chemical library followed by its ADME/toxicity properties in the biological trials. RESULTS: In the present study, we have used publicly available, high-throughput screen datasets of chemical moieties which have been adjudged to target the pyruvate kinase enzyme of L. mexicana (LmPK). The machine learning approach was used to create computational models capable of predicting the biological activity of novel antileishmanial compounds. Further, we evaluated the molecules using the substructure based approach to identify the common substructures contributing to their activity. CONCLUSION: We generated computational models based on machine learning methods and evaluated the performance of these models based on various statistical figures of merit. Random forest based approach was determined to be the most sensitive, better accuracy as well as ROC. We further added a substructure based approach to analyze the molecules to identify potentially enriched substructures in the active dataset. We believe that the models developed in the present study would lead to reduction in cost and length of clinical studies and hence newer drugs would appear faster in the market providing better healthcare options to the patients.

Análise funcional dos genes Ferro Superóxido Dismutase-A e Proteína de Membrana dos Kinetoplastídeos-11 em linhagens de Leishmania selvagens e resistentes ao antimonial trivalente / Functional analysis of genes iron superoxide dismutase-A and Membrane Protein-11 in the kinetoplastids Leishmania strains of wild-resistant trivalent antimony

Em nosso estudo caracterizamos a enzima ferro superóxido dismutase-A (FeSOD-A) e a proteína de membrana dos kinetoplastídeos-11 (KMP-11) em linhagens de Leishmania spp. do Novo Mundo selvagens e resistentes aos antimoniais. Ambas proteínas apresentam grande relevância no metabolismo do parasito, visto que a enzima FeSOD-A está envolvida na defesa antioxidante e KMP-11, presente na superfície da membrana dos kinetoplastídeos, pode estar relacionada ao fenótipo de resistência do parasito ao antimonial. Análise de Southern blot mostrou a presença de polimorfismos na sequência do gene FeSOD-A entre as linhagens de Leishmania avaliadas. A expressão de FeSOD-A foi analisada utilizando anticorpo policlonal (TcFeSOD) que reconheceu um polipeptídio de 26 kDa em todas as linhagens estudadas. Quantificação por qPCR mostrou que o mRNA do gene é 3,6X menos expresso na linhagem L. guyanensis resistente LgSbR, por outro lado a proteína está 2,0X mais expressa nessa linhagem. A FeSOD-A está 3,0X menos expressa em L. amazonensis resistente LaSbR, mas o nível de mRNA foi o mesmo entre as linhagens LaWTS e LaSbR. Ensaios de atividade enzimática mostraram que FESOD-A possui maior atividade nas linhagens resistentes de L. braziliensis e L. infantum chagasi (LbSbR e LcSbR) comparado com as linhagens selvagens. A análise funcional foi realizada para determinar se a superexpressão do gene FeSOD-A nas linhagens LbWTS/LbSbR e LcWTS/LcSbR iria alterar o fenótipo de resistência dos parasitos transfectados. Ensaios de Western blot e de atividade enzimática mostraram que o nível de expressão da proteína e atividade da FeSOD-A foram maiores nos parasitos transfectados em comparação com os não-transfectados. Análise IC50 do SbIII mostrou que a superexpressão FeSOD-A nas linhagens de LbWTS e LcWTS aumentou 1,7X e 1,6X o fenótipo de resistência ao antimônio, respectivamente. A superexpressão da enzima FeSOD-A na linhagem LbSbR reduziu o fenótipo resistência, enquanto que na linhagem LcSbR não houve alteração no fenótipo. Resultados de tolerância ao estresse oxidativo induzido por paraquat mostrou que o clone superexpressor de LbWTS apresentou maior proteção ao estresse comparado à linhagem não-transfectada. Concluindo, nossos resultados sugerem que a enzima FeSOD-A está envolvida no fenótipo de resistência de L. braziliensis e L. chagasi ao antimonial. Para o gene KMP-11 análise por Southern blot mostrou semelhante perfil de hibridização entre as diferentes espécies analisadas, com exceção da linhagem LgWTS que apresentou perfil de fragmentos diferentes. Análise de Northern blot revelou a presença de dois transcritos, 1,0 Kb e 3,0 Kb, em todas as linhagens de Leishmania spp., com exceção da linhagem LgWTS que apresentou apenas um transcrito de 1,0 Kb. Quantificação por qPCR mostrou que mRNA do gene KMP-11 está 2,9X menos expresso na linhagem de LbSbR e 1,5X mais expresso na linhagem LcSbR comparado com os respectivos pares selvagens. A expressão de KMP-11 utilizando anticorpo policlonal anti-KMP-11, mostrou que ele reconheceu um polipeptídio de 11 kDa em todas as linhagens de Leishmania spp. estudadas. Análises de densitometria mostraram que KMP-11 está 1,5X mais expressa em LcSbR comparado com o par selvagem LcWTS e 2,0X menos expressa em LbSbR comparado ao par LbWTS. Ensaios de transfecção do gene KMP-11 foram realizados nas linhagens LbWTS e LbSbR. Análise de Western blot mostrou maior expressão da proteína KMP-11 nos parasitos resistentes transfectados. Avaliação da susceptibilidade ao SbIII mostrou que a superexpressão de KMP-11 na linhagem selvagem de LbWTS não alterou o fenótipo. Por outro lado, a superexpressão dessa proteína na linhagem resistente (LbSbR) reduziu o fenótipo resistência. Ensaios in vitro e in vivo com as linhagens LbWTS não-transfectadas e os clones transfectados com KMP-11 não mostraram diferenças quanto à infectividade dos parasitos em células THP-1 e em camundongos nocaute para interferon-γ. Apenas o clone 6 apresentou menor infectividade em camundongos. Estudos adicionais são necessários para investigar melhor a possível participação da proteína KMP-11 no fenótipo de resistência ao antimonial e na infectividade dos parasitos.

Análise funcional dos genes Ferro Superóxido Dismutase-A e Proteína de Membrana dos Kinetoplastídeos-11 em linhagens de Leishmania selvagens e resistentes ao antimonial trivalente

Em nosso estudo caracterizamos a enzima ferro superóxido dismutase-A (FeSOD-A) e a proteína de membrana dos kinetoplastídeos-11 (KMP-11) em linhagens de Leishmania spp. do Novo Mundo selvagens e resistentes aos antimoniais. Ambas proteínas apresentam grande relevância no metabolismo do parasito, visto que a enzima FeSOD-A está envolvida na defesa antioxidante e KMP-11, presente na superfície da membrana dos kinetoplastídeos, pode estar relacionada ao fenótipo de resistência do parasito ao antimonial. Análise de Southern blot mostrou a presença de polimorfismos na sequência do gene FeSOD-A entre as linhagens de Leishmania avaliadas. A expressão de FeSOD-A foi analisada utilizando anticorpo policlonal (TcFeSOD) que reconheceu um polipeptídio de 26 kDa em todas as linhagens estudadas. Quantificação por qPCR mostrou que o mRNA do gene é 3,6X menos expresso na linhagem L. guyanensis resistente LgSbR, por outro lado a proteína está 2,0X mais expressa nessa linhagem. A FeSOD-A está 3,0X menos expressa em L. amazonensis resistente LaSbR, mas o nível de mRNA foi o mesmo entre as linhagens LaWTS e LaSbR. Ensaios de atividade enzimática mostraram que FESOD-A possui maior atividade nas linhagens resistentes de L. braziliensis e L. infantum chagasi (LbSbR e LcSbR) comparado com as linhagens selvagens. A análise funcional foi realizada para determinar se a superexpressão do gene FeSOD-A nas linhagens LbWTS/LbSbR e LcWTS/LcSbR iria alterar o fenótipo de resistência dos parasitos transfectados. Ensaios de Western blot e de atividade enzimática mostraram que o nível de expressão da proteína e atividade da FeSOD-A foram maiores nos parasitos transfectados em comparação com os não-transfectados. Análise IC50 do SbIII mostrou que a superexpressão FeSOD-A nas linhagens de LbWTS e LcWTS aumentou 1,7X e 1,6X o fenótipo de resistência ao antimônio, respectivamente.

A superexpressão da enzima FeSOD-A na linhagem LbSbR reduziu o fenótipo resistência, enquanto que na linhagem LcSbR não houve alteração no fenótipo. Resultados de tolerância ao estresse oxidativo induzido por paraquat mostrou que o clone superexpressor de LbWTS apresentou maior proteção ao estresse comparado à linhagem não-transfectada. Concluindo, nossos resultados sugerem que a enzima FeSOD-A está envolvida no fenótipo de resistência de L. braziliensis e L. chagasi ao antimonial. Para o gene KMP-11 análise por Southern blot mostrou semelhante perfil de hibridização entre as diferentes espécies analisadas, com exceção da linhagem LgWTS que apresentou perfil de fragmentos diferentes. Análise de Northern blot revelou a presença de dois transcritos, 1,0 Kb e 3,0 Kb, em todas as linhagens de Leishmania spp., com exceção da linhagem LgWTS que apresentou apenas um transcrito de 1,0 Kb. Quantificação por qPCR mostrou que mRNA do gene KMP-11 está 2,9X menos expresso na linhagem de LbSbR e 1,5X mais expresso na linhagem LcSbR comparado com os respectivos pares selvagens. A expressão de KMP-11 utilizando anticorpo policlonal anti-KMP-11, mostrou que ele reconheceu um polipeptídio de 11 kDa em todas as linhagens de Leishmania spp. estudadas.

Análises de densitometria mostraram que KMP-11 está 1,5X mais expressa em LcSbR comparado com o par selvagem LcWTS e 2,0X menos expressa em LbSbR comparado ao par LbWTS. Ensaios de transfecção do gene KMP-11 foram realizados nas linhagens LbWTS e LbSbR. Análise de Western blot mostrou maior expressão da proteína KMP-11 nos parasitos resistentes transfectados. Avaliação da susceptibilidade ao SbIII mostrou que a superexpressão de KMP-11 na linhagem selvagem de LbWTS não alterou o fenótipo. Por outro lado, a superexpressão dessa proteína na linhagem resistente (LbSbR) reduziu o fenótipo resistência. Ensaios in vitro e in vivo com as linhagens LbWTS não-transfectadas e os clones transfectados com KMP-11 não mostraram diferenças quanto à infectividade dos parasitos em células THP-1 e em camundongos nocaute para interferon-γ. Apenas o clone 6 apresentou menor infectividade em camundongos. Estudos adicionais são necessários para investigar melhor a possível participação da proteína KMP-11 no fenótipo de resistência ao antimonial e na infectividade dos parasitos.

Crystal structure of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase from Leishmania major.

Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) is the fourth enzyme in the de novo pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway and has been exploited as the target for therapy against proliferative and parasitic diseases. In this study, we report the crystal structures of DHODH from Leishmania major, the species of Leishmania associated with zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis, in its apo form and in complex with orotate and fumarate molecules. Both orotate and fumarate were found to bind to the same active site and exploit similar interactions, consistent with a ping-pong mechanism described for class 1A DHODHs. Analysis of LmDHODH structures reveals that rearrangements in the conformation of the catalytic loop have direct influence on the dimeric interface. This is the first structural evidence of a relationship between the dimeric form and the catalytic mechanism. According to our analysis, the high sequence and structural similarity observed among trypanosomatid DHODH suggest that a single strategy of structure-based inhibitor design can be used to validate DHODH as a druggable target against multiple neglected tropical diseases such as Leishmaniasis, Sleeping sickness and Chagas' diseases.

Qualitative and quantitative immunohistochemical evaluation of iNOS expression in the spleen of dogs naturally infected with Leishmania chagasi.

Nitric oxide (NO), the product of the nitric oxide synthase enzymes has been detected in Leishmania-infected animals. Besides its role on the immunity to infection, the role of NO and the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the pathogenesis of canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL) is not well understood. This study aimed at evaluating immunohistochemically the iNOS expression in the spleen of dogs naturally infected (ID) with Leishmania (L.) chagasi compared with non-infected dogs (NID). The ID was grouped according to the clinical form and the parasite load. Symptomatic dogs (SD) presented higher parasite load in relation to oligosymptomatic (OD) and asymptomatic (AD). The qualitative expression of iNOS was observed only in ID. SD presented strong and prominent labeling of iNOS, followed by OD and AD. Quantitatively, the results showed that the median expression of iNOS was higher in SD and OD compared to NID. Also, dog spleens with high parasitism load showed marked iNOS expression. Taken together, the results suggest that the expression of iNOS in the spleen of infected dogs with CVL was associated with clinical worsening of the disease and with high parasitism.

Serine proteases of Leishmania amazonensis as immunomodulatory and disease-aggravating components of the crude LaAg vaccine.

We previously demonstrated that intradermal and intramuscular vaccination with Leishmania amazonensis promastigote antigens (LaAg) increases the susceptibility of BALB/c mice to cutaneous leishmaniasis. In this study, we investigated the role played by serine and cysteine proteases as disease-promoting components of LaAg. Mice were immunized by the intramuscular route with LaAg that was pre-treated with a pool of serine or cysteine protease inhibitors (SPi and CPi, respectively) prior to infection with L. amazonensis. Neutralization of either enzyme type reversed the disease-promoting effect of LaAg, as seen by the slower lesion development. However, the parasite burden was only effectively controlled in mice receiving SPi-treated LaAg. Protection was associated with diminished production of TGF-beta and particularly IL-10 in response to parasite antigens by the lesion-draining lymph node cells of vaccinated mice relative to control. In vitro, soluble proteases isolated from LaAg (LaSP-Sol) directly activated IL-4, IL-10 and TGF-beta production by immune cells. Like native LaAg, vaccination with LaSP-Sol primed mice to respond to parasite challenge with a strong Jones-Mote cutaneous hypersensitivity reaction, and increased susceptibility to infection. Furthermore, neutralization of serine but not cysteine proteases blocked the capacity of LaAg to sensitize mice for Jones-Mote reaction. Together, these results indicate that soluble serine proteases are key components of LaAg responsible for its disease-promoting immunity.

NF-kappaB-mediated repression of iNOS expression in Leishmania amazonensis macrophage infection.

Host invasion by pathogens is frequently associated with the activation of nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB), which modulates the expression of genes involved in the immunological response of the host. However, pathogens may also subvert these mechanisms to secure their survival. We describe the effect of Leishmania amazonensis infection on NF-kappaB transcriptional factor activation in macrophages and the subsequent reduction in inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression. L. amazonensis promastigote infection activates the p50/p50 NF-kappaB complex, a classic transcriptional repressor. Interestingly, L. amazonensis promotes the change of the classical p65/p50 NF-kappaB dimer induced by LPS, leading to the p50/p50 NF-kappaB complex activation in macrophages stimulated with LPS. Moreover, this parasite promotes the reduction of p65 total levels in infected macrophages. All these effects contribute to the observation that this parasite is able to restrain the NF-kappaB-dependent transcriptional activity induced by LPS. Strikingly, L. amazonensis reduces the mRNA levels of the iNOS in addition to protein expression and the production of nitric oxide in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Accordingly, as revealed by reporter-gene assays, L. amazonensis-induced iNOS repression requires NF-kappaB sites in the iNOS promoter region. In summary, our results suggest that L. amazonensis has developed an adaptive strategy to escape from host defense by activating the NF-kappaB repressor complex p50/p50. The activation of this specific host transcriptional response negatively regulates the expression of iNOS, favoring the establishment and success of L. amazonensis infection.

Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) associates with NADPH oxidase and is required for phagocytosis of Leishmania chagasi promastigotes by macrophages.

PDI, a redox chaperone, is involved in host cell uptake of bacteria/viruses, phagosome formation, and vascular NADPH oxidase regulation. PDI involvement in phagocyte infection by parasites has been poorly explored. Here, we investigated the role of PDI in in vitro infection of J774 macrophages by amastigote and promastigote forms of the protozoan Leishmania chagasi and assessed whether PDI associates with the macrophage NADPH oxidase complex. Promastigote but not amastigote phagocytosis was inhibited significantly by macrophage incubation with thiol/PDI inhibitors DTNB, bacitracin, phenylarsine oxide, and neutralizing PDI antibody in a parasite redox-dependent way. Binding assays indicate that PDI preferentially mediates parasite internalization. Bref-A, an ER-Golgi-disrupting agent, prevented PDI concentration in an enriched macrophage membrane fraction and promoted a significant decrease in infection. Promastigote phagocytosis was increased further by macrophage overexpression of wild-type PDI and decreased upon transfection with an antisense PDI plasmid or PDI siRNA. At later stages of infection, PDI physically interacted with L. chagasi, as revealed by immunoprecipitation data. Promastigote uptake was inhibited consistently by macrophage preincubation with catalase. Additionally, loss- or gain-of-function experiments indicated that PMA-driven NADPH oxidase activation correlated directly with PDI expression levels. Close association between PDI and the p22phox NADPH oxidase subunit was shown by confocal colocalization and coimmunoprecipitation. These results provide evidence that PDI not only associates with phagocyte NADPH oxidase but also that PDI is crucial for efficient macrophage infection by L. chagasi.

Leishmania-induced tyrosine phosphorylation in the host macrophage and its implication to infection.

Tyrosine phosphorylation is an important mechanism of cell regulation and has been recently implicated in defense strategies against a variety of pathogens. We have investigated the involvement of protein tyrosine kinase activity in the Leishmania attachment, invasion and survival within macrophages, as well as promastigote ability to trigger tyrosine phosphorylation, which could contribute to leishmanicidal activity. Treatment of murine macrophage monolayers with genistein, herbimycin A, tyrphostin 25 or staurosporine prior to infection decreased parasite invasion in a dose-dependent manner. Contrary, addition of sodium orthovanadate, a protein tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor, phosphotyrosine and p-nitrophenyl phosphate to the interaction medium, significantly increased parasite binding and internalization, whereas phosphoserine and phosphothreonine had no effect. The phosphatase activity of intact promastigotes was greater than that of macrophages. Western blot analysis revealed tyrosine-phosphorylated bands from 198 to 28 kDa following macrophage challenge with promastigotes. Uninfected macrophages displayed no detectable tyrosine phosphorylated proteins, possibly indicating an inducible process, while in parasites it was constitutive, as seen by the presence of 42, 40 and 35 kDa phosphoproteins on the Leishmania lysates. Immunofluorescence and immunogold detection of phosphotyrosine residues in some promastigote-macrophage attachment areas, but not in the vicinity of ingested parasites, suggest that Leishmania-induced tyrosine phosphorylation is an early, local and short-lived event. Genistein treatment of Leishmania-infected cells significantly enhanced the parasite burden. This antagonist also diminished nitric oxide production in resting and interferon gamma/lipopolysaccharide-activated infected macrophages, which may account for the increased parasite survival. We propose that protein tyrosine kinase-linked pathways regulate the Leishmania promastigote invasion and the macrophage microbicidal activity.

Lysosomal depletion in macrophages from spleen and foot lesions of Leishmania-infected hamster.

Analysis of lysosomes through acid phosphatase cytochemistry at the electron microscopy level has been performed in spleen and foot lesions from Leishmania-infected hamsters. The results showed that there is lysosomal depletion in macrophages from Leishmania donovani chagasi-infected hamster spleen and similar findings were obtained from foot lesions of Leishmania mexicana amazonensis-infected hamsters. The distribution of acid phosphatase and thiamine pyrophosphatase was also examined in the Golgi apparatus. It was possible to demonstrate that the activity of ACP is absent in infected macrophages from spleen and foot lesions of Leishmania-infected hamster while the distribution of TPP was very similar in control and infected macrophages from both systems. These results provide evidence that the lysosomal depletion can occur at the ACP synthesis and/or glycosylation level.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis of man due to Leishmania (Viannia) naiffi Lainson and Shaw, 1989.

Until recently mammalian hosts of Leishmania (Viannia) naiffi Lainson & Shaw, 1989 have been limited to armadillos, Dasypus novemcinctus, in Amazonian Brazil. Past evidence for human cutaneous leishmaniasis due to this parasite is reviewed, and a recent infection in man reported, with identification of the parasite by isoenzyme profiles and a specific monoclonal antibody. The role of some phlebotomine sandfly species as vectors is discussed.

Leishmania mexicana amazonensis: heterogeneity in 5'-nucleotidase and peroxidase activities of mononuclear phagocytes during in vivo and in vitro infection.

The degree of maturation of cells of the Mononuclear Phagocyte System (MPS), during in vivo and in vitro infection by Leishmania mexicana amazonensis, was evaluated in this study. The macrophages' differentiation was assayed by cytochemical characterization at the ultrastructural level, using two well-established markers: 5'-nucleotidase enzyme activity, for revealing the mature cells; and the peroxidase activity present in the cell granules to demonstrate immature mononuclear phagocytes. Only a few macrophages, demonstrating 5'-nucleotidase positive reaction in both the plasma membrane and within their cytoplasmic vesicles, were found scattered in the chronic inflammation at the L. m. amazonensis lesions in albino mice. However, by the peroxidase activity analysis, we were also able to demonstrate the presence of immature MPS cells, which predominate, together with parasitized vacuolated macrophages, in chronic lesions induced in this system by L. m. amazonensis. The implications of these results on the pathogenesis of murine cutaneous leishmaniasis are discussed.

Leishmania mexicana: a cytochemical and quantitative study of lysosomal enzymes in infected rat bone marrow-derived macrophages.

The cellular localization and activity of the lysosomal enzymes acid phosphatase, trimetaphosphatase, and arylsulfatase were studied in rat bone marrow-derived macrophages infected with Leishmania mexicana amazonensis amastigotes. The specific activity of acid phosphatase normalized for protein content was similar in normal macrophages and in isolated amastigotes, whereas the latter were markedly deficient in trimetaphosphatase and arylsulfatase activities. It is thus likely that trimetaphosphatase and arylsulfatase activities detected in infected macrophages were of host cell origin. The activities of the three enzymes, assayed biochemically, varied independently in the infected macrophages. While arylsulfatase activity was unchanged after infection, the activity of acid phosphatase increased by 19, 40, and 94% at 6, 24, and 48 hr, respectively. Trimetaphosphatase activity rose only slightly during the first 24 hr after infection but increased by 74% at 48 hr. The rise in acid phosphatase activity could be accounted for only partially by multiplication of the amastigotes. Thus, as for trimetaphosphatase, these results suggest enhanced macrophage synthesis of acid phosphatase and/or reduced enzyme degradation by the infected macrophages. The reduction in host cell lysosomes previously described (Ryter et al. 1983; Barbieri et al. 1985) was confirmed but appearance of lysosomal enzyme activity in the parasitophorous vacuole is documented in the present report. Thus, Leishmania do not seem to reduce the amount and the activity of host lysosomal enzymes.

Receptor-mediated entry of beta-glucuronidase into the parasitophorous vacuoles of macrophages infected with Leishmania mexicana amazonensis.

125I-labeled rat preputial gland beta-glucuronidase was shown by light and electron microscopic radioautography to accumulate within the parasitophorous vacuoles of in vitro derived bone marrow macrophages infected with Leishmania mexicana amazonensis. beta-glucuronidase uptake was mediated by the mannose receptor, since the penetration of the ligand was inhibited by mannan. Uptake was detected as soon as 4 h after incubation of infected cells with the ligand, and increased at 24 and 48 h. The label persisted in the vacuoles for at least 24 h after a 24-h pulse with the ligand, a finding compatible with the relatively long half-life of labeled beta-glucuronidase in normal macrophages. Parasitophorous vacuoles were also labeled in macrophages exposed to the ligand only before infection, indicating that secondary lysosomes containing the ligand fused with the parasitophorous vacuoles. Another mannosylated ligand, mannose-BSA, which, in contrast to beta-glucuronidase, is rapidly degraded in macrophage lysosomes, did not detectably accumulate in the vacuoles. The results support and extend information previously obtained with electron opaque tracers that emphasizes the phagolysosomal nature of Leishmania parasitophorous vacuoles. In addition, the results suggest that appropriate mannosylated molecules may be used as carriers for targeting of leishmanicidal drugs to the parasitophorous vacuoles of infected macrophages.