ABSTRACT
An economic simulation was carried out over 183 milk-producing countries to estimate the global economic impacts of 12 dairy cattle diseases and health conditions: mastitis (subclinical and clinical), lameness, paratuberculosis (Johne's disease), displaced abomasum, dystocia, metritis, milk fever, ovarian cysts, retained placenta, and ketosis (subclinical and clinical). Estimates of disease impacts on milk yield, fertility, and culling were collected from the literature, standardized, meta-analyzed using a variety of methods ranging from simple averaging to random-effects models, and adjusted for comorbidities to prevent overestimation. These comorbidity-adjusted disease impacts were then combined with a set of country-level estimates for lactational incidence or prevalence or both, herd characteristics, and price estimates within a series of Monte Carlo simulations that estimated and valued the economic losses due to these diseases. It was estimated that total annual global losses are US$65 billion (B). Subclinical ketosis, clinical mastitis, and subclinical mastitis were the costliest diseases modeled, resulting in mean annual global losses of approximately US$18B, US$13B, and US$9B, respectively. Estimated global annual losses due to clinical ketosis, displaced abomasum, dystocia, lameness, metritis, milk fever, ovarian cysts, paratuberculosis, and retained placenta were estimated to be US$0.2B, US$0.6B, US$0.6B, US$6B, US$5B, US$0.6B, US$4B, US$4B, and US$3B, respectively. Without adjustment for comorbidities, when statistical associations between diseases were disregarded, mean aggregate global losses would have been overestimated by 45%. Although annual losses were greatest in India (US$12B), the United States (US$8B), and China (US$5B), depending on the measure of losses used (losses as a percentage of gross domestic product, losses per capita, losses as a percentage of gross milk revenue), the relative economic burden of these dairy cattle diseases across countries varied markedly.
Subject(s)
Cattle Diseases , Dairying , Mastitis, Bovine , Cattle , Animals , Cattle Diseases/economics , Cattle Diseases/epidemiology , Female , Dairying/economics , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Mastitis, Bovine/epidemiology , Milk/economics , Lactation , Comorbidity , Ketosis/veterinary , Ketosis/economics , PregnancyABSTRACT
Retrospective evaluation of udder recovery following treatment of the inflamed quarter with acoustic pulse technology (APT) of cows with subclinical mastitis was done on 4 Israeli commercial dairy farms. Here, we evaluated the APT treatment as a tool to manage subclinical mastitis and its economic consequences in commercial farms. Recovery of the infected glands following APT treatment was compared to the customary no-treatment (NT) for cows with subclinical mastitis. Over 2 years, 467 cows with subclinical mastitis were identified. Subclinical mastitis was defined by elevated somatic cell count (SCC; >1 × 106 cells/mL) in the monthly test-day milk sample; 222 cows were treated with APT and 245 cows were not treated and served as control. Differences between treatment groups in culling, milk quality, milk yield and bacterial elimination were analyzed. After treatment, cure from bacteria was calculated only for cows with pre-isolated bacteria. The percentage of sampled cows determined as cured (no bacterial finding) in the NT group was 32.7% (35/107) (30.9% Gram negative; 32.4% Gram positive) and in the APT-treated group, 83.9% (42/55) (89.4% Gram negative; 80.6% Gram positive). Culling rate due to mastitis was significantly lower (>90%) in the APT-treated vs. NT group. Recovery was 66.0% in the APT group compared to 11.5% in the NT group at 90 d post-treatment. Average milk volume per cow in the APT-treated group was 16.1% higher compared to NT cows. Based on the study, savings incurred by using APT to treat only subclinical cows per 100-cow herd can total $15,106/y, or $309 per treated subclinically infected cow.
Subject(s)
Dairying , Mammary Glands, Animal , Mastitis, Bovine , Animals , Cattle , Mastitis, Bovine/microbiology , Mastitis, Bovine/therapy , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Female , Retrospective Studies , Dairying/economics , Mammary Glands, Animal/microbiology , Mammary Glands, Animal/pathology , Milk , Farms , IsraelABSTRACT
Treatment of subclinical mastitis (SCM) during lactation is rarely recommended due to concerns related to both antimicrobial usage and the costs associated with milk discard. Nisin is a naturally produced antimicrobial peptide with a gram-positive spectrum that, when given to dairy cows, does not require milk discard. We evaluated the economic impact of the treatment of SCM during early lactation using a nisin-based intramammary treatment under different scenarios that included various treatment costs, milk prices, and cure rates. We stochastically simulated the dynamics of SCM detected during the first week of lactation. The net economic impact was expressed in US dollars per case. The probabilities of an event and their related costs were estimated using a model that was based on pathogen-specific assumptions selected from peer-reviewed articles. Nisin cure rates were based on results of pivotal studies included in the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval submission. Based on our model, the average cost of a case of intramammary infection (i.e., only true-positive cases) in early lactation was $170 (90% = $148-$187), whereas the cost of a clinical mastitis case was $521 (90% range = $435-$581). Both estimates varied with etiology, parity, and stage of lactation. When comparing the net cost of SCM cases (i.e., CMT-positive tests) detected during the first week of lactation, nisin treatment generated an average positive economic impact of $19 per CMT-positive case. The use of nisin to treat SCM was beneficial 93% of the time. Based on the sensitivity analysis, treatment would result in an economically beneficial outcome for 95% and 73% of multiparous and primiparous cows, respectively. At the herd level, use of intramammary nisin to treat SCM in cows in early lactation was economically beneficial in most tested scenarios. However, the economic impact was highly influenced by factors such as rate of bacteriological cure, cost of treatment, and parity of the affected animal. These factors should be considered when deciding to use nisin as a treatment for SCM.
Subject(s)
Anti-Bacterial Agents , Lactation , Mastitis, Bovine , Milk , Nisin , Nisin/therapeutic use , Nisin/economics , Female , Animals , Cattle , Mastitis, Bovine/drug therapy , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Anti-Bacterial Agents/therapeutic use , Anti-Bacterial Agents/economics , Dairying/economicsABSTRACT
This study investigated the continuous monthly prevalence of bovine clinical mastitis (CM) and the distribution of causative pathogens among 36,619 CM milk samples from large dairy farms across seven Chinese provinces from 2015 to 2017 using data from routine CM recording systems. Based on treatment period and cost per cow, withdrawal period, daily milk production, and milk value data from each farm in 2017, we calculated the economic impact of CM at the farm level with 2578-9044 lactating cows per farm. Results showed a wide variation in monthly prevalence of CM (0.6 %-18.2 %) among the seven farms over the study period, indicating regional and temporal differences in the occurrence of CM in China. Enterobacteriaceae were the predominant pathogens across all farms from six provinces except Shandong, in which the Streptococcus spp. was the most prevalent. However, the distribution of various Enterobacteriaceae species differed among farms, and Streptococcus species distribution was strongly associated (Pearson's coefficient, 68.4 %) with location. Monthly economic losses associated with CM showed clear variation, ranging from 12,000-76,000 USD/farm/month. Sensitivity analysis showed that economic loss at the farm level was most sensitive to variation in the prevalence of CM, followed by antibiotic treatment period and daily milk production per cow. To our knowledge, this is the longest running study of CM and the first estimation of its economic impacts in China. Our findings highlight the considerable costs associated with mastitis, and indicate that preventive measures and regional and timely treatment of CM are needed.
Subject(s)
Dairying/economics , Enterobacteriaceae Infections/veterinary , Mastitis, Bovine/epidemiology , Mastitis, Bovine/microbiology , Animals , Cattle/microbiology , China/epidemiology , Enterobacteriaceae/isolation & purification , Enterobacteriaceae/pathogenicity , Enterobacteriaceae Infections/economics , Enterobacteriaceae Infections/epidemiology , Farms/statistics & numerical data , Female , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Prevalence , Streptococcus/isolation & purification , Streptococcus/pathogenicityABSTRACT
Incidences of ketosis, metritis, mastitis, and retained placenta were studied in Israeli Holstein cows calving between 2008 and 2017. These diseases were selected based on their economic impact. Ketosis, metritis, and retained placenta were scored dichotomously. Mastitis was scored as absent, a single occurrence during the lactation, or more than 1 occurrence. Ketosis and metritis were recorded during the first 21 d after calving, retained placenta during the first 5 d after calving, and mastitis up to 305 d in milk. The effects of herd-year-season, calving age, month of calving, gestation length, and occurrence of dystocia were included in the first-parity analysis models. All effects were significant for metritis and retained placenta. For ketosis, all effects were significant, except for gestation length. For mastitis, only the effects of herd-year-season and calving age were significant. Variance components were computed by the multitrait animal model. The 4 diseases were analyzed jointly based on first-parity records, and each disease was analyzed separately for parities 1 to 3 with the different parities considered separate traits. The 4 disease traits in first parity were also analyzed jointly with the 6 major traits included in the Israeli breeding index: milk, fat, and protein production; somatic cell score; female fertility; and longevity. Heritability was highest for metritis and lowest for mastitis, but all heritabilities were <0.07, similar to previous studies. For all 4 diseases, genetic correlations among the first 3 parities were >0.65, and all residual correlations were <0.07. Selection of herd-years assumed to have more accurate recording of mastitis did not result in higher heritability estimates. Genetic correlations between the disease traits and milk, fat, and protein production were economically unfavorable, while correlations between the disease traits and somatic cell score, female fertility, and longevity were economically favorable. Expected genetic changes in the disease traits after 10 yr of selection with the current Israeli breeding index were all <1%, except for ketosis, which was predicted to increase by 1.5%. Inclusion of these traits in a proposed index with the disease traits constituting 7% of the index would result in only marginal improvements for the disease traits and adversely affect genetic gain for fat and protein production. Thus, inclusion of these traits in the breeding index cannot be justified economically.
Subject(s)
Cattle Diseases/economics , Dairying/economics , Ketosis/veterinary , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Placenta, Retained/veterinary , Animals , Cattle , Cattle Diseases/genetics , Dystocia/genetics , Dystocia/veterinary , Environment , Female , Israel , Ketosis/economics , Lactation/genetics , Longevity , Milk , Parity , Phenotype , Placenta, Retained/economics , PregnancyABSTRACT
Mastitis is a costly disease and in many areas of the world, these costs have been quantified to support farmers in their decision making with regard to prevention of mastitis. Although for subsaharan circumstances estimates have been made for the costs of subclinical mastitis (SCM), farm-specific cost estimations comprising both clinical mastitis (CM) and SCM are lacking. In this paper, we quantified failure costs of both CM and SCM on 150 Ethiopian market-oriented dairy farms keeping Holstein Friesian × Zebu breed cows. Data about CM were collected by face-to-face interviews and the prevalence of SCM was estimated for each farm using the California mastitis test. All other relevant information needed to calculate the failure costs, such as the consequences of mastitis and price levels, was collected during the farm visits, except for the parameter for milk production losses due to SCM, which was based on literature estimates and subjected to sensitivity analyses. The average total failure costs of mastitis was estimated to be 4 765 Ethiopian Birr (ETB) (1 ETB = 0.0449 USD) per farm per year of which SCM contributed 54% of the costs. The average total failure costs per lactating cow per farm per year were 1 961 ETB, with a large variation between farms (range 0 to 35 084 ETB). This large variation in failure costs between farms was mainly driven by variation in incidence of CM and prevalence of SCM. Milk production losses made the largest contribution (80%), whereas culling contributed 13% to 17% to the total failure costs. In our estimates, costs of veterinary services, drugs, discarded milk and labour made a minor contribution to the total failure costs of mastitis. Relative to the income of dairy farmers in North Western Ethiopia; the total failure costs of mastitis are high. In general, Ethiopian farmers are aware of the negative consequences of CM, but creating awareness of the high costs of SCM and showing large variation between farmers may be instrumental in motivating farmers to also take preventive measures for SCM.
Subject(s)
Dairying/economics , Mastitis, Bovine/epidemiology , Milk/economics , Animals , Breeding , Cattle , Costs and Cost Analysis , Ethiopia/epidemiology , Farms , Female , Lactation , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , PrevalenceABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to evaluate and compare different combinations of intervention strategies for contagious or opportunistic subclinical and clinical intramammary infections (IMI). We simulated two different Danish dairy cattle herds with ten different intervention strategies focusing on cow-specific treatment or culling, including three baseline strategies without subclinical interventions. In one herd, the main causative pathogen of IMI was Staphylococcus (S.) aureus. In the other herd, Streptococcus (St.) agalactiae was the main causative agent. For both herds, we investigated costs and effectiveness of all ten intervention strategies. Intervention strategies consisted of measures against clinical and subclinical IMI, with baselines given by purely clinical intervention strategies. Our results showed that strategies including subclinical interventions were more cost-effective than the respective baseline strategies. Increase in income and reduction of IMI cases came at the cost of increased antibiotic usage and an increased culling rate in relation to IMI. However, there were differences between the herds. In the St. agalactiae herd, the clinical intervention strategy did not seem to have a big impact on income and number of cases. However, intervention strategies which included cow-specific clinical interventions led to a higher income and lower number of cases in the S. aureus herd. The results show that intervention strategies including interventions against contagious or opportunistic clinical and subclinical IMI can be highly cost-effective, but should be herd-specific.
Subject(s)
Communicable Disease Control/methods , Dairying , Mastitis, Bovine/prevention & control , Staphylococcal Infections/veterinary , Streptococcal Infections/veterinary , Animals , Asymptomatic Infections/economics , Cattle , Denmark , Female , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Mastitis, Bovine/microbiology , Opportunistic Infections/economics , Opportunistic Infections/microbiology , Opportunistic Infections/prevention & control , Opportunistic Infections/veterinary , Staphylococcal Infections/economics , Staphylococcal Infections/microbiology , Staphylococcal Infections/prevention & control , Staphylococcus aureus/physiology , Streptococcal Infections/economics , Streptococcal Infections/microbiology , Streptococcal Infections/prevention & control , Streptococcus agalactiae/physiologyABSTRACT
This paper addresses whether it is worthwhile investing time in a more comprehensive documentation and analysis of farm specific data for mastitis treatment. Whilst most farmers keep some records, many refrain from investing more effort in making them more detailed. Therefore, information on farm-specific antibiotic consumption, effectiveness of treatments and the costs of mastitis are lacking; as well as the ability to identify and realise possibilities for improvement. An observational study was conducted on 30 dairy farms, to obtain an overview of farming practice, recording detailed data (using herd management software) on: milk records, diagnostics, preventive and therapeutic treatments and cost of mastitis, on an individual cow level. Out of a total of 30,633 cows, 67% received medication for the treatment or prevention of mastitis over a year. Antibiotics were chosen for 96% of udder treatments; including those for dry cows. Over 32% of the antibiotics used during lactation belonged to the 'highest priority critically important antimicrobial' category. Success of therapeutic treatment (assessed by individual somatic cell count (SCC)) ranged from 18% to 59% and total costs of mastitis per cow and year from 158 to 483. The high variations in antibiotic consumption, treatment outcomes and cost of mastitis between farms, showed that average or incomplete figures risk giving the wrong impression of a farm. It is thus worthwhile to invest in documentation and analysis of data, so that it is clear where action is required and which investments can be expected to be financially feasible. Benefits emerge from knowledge of antibiotic consumption allowing monitoring and reduction in antibiotic use (as demanded by consumers and legislation), improvements in animal health and welfare thanks to regular checks of how effective a treatment is, and economic benefits due to knowledge of the costs caused by mastitis.
Subject(s)
Anti-Bacterial Agents/economics , Dairying/economics , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Animals , Anti-Bacterial Agents/therapeutic use , Cattle , Cell Count , Costs and Cost Analysis/statistics & numerical data , Dairying/methods , Dairying/statistics & numerical data , Female , Mastitis, Bovine/drug therapy , Milk/economics , Milk/microbiology , Treatment OutcomeABSTRACT
The overall aim of this study was to compare different intervention strategies for clinical intramammary infections (IMI). We conducted a simulation study to represent a Danish dairy cattle herd with IMI caused mostly by Staphylococcus aureus and 9 different intervention strategies for clinical IMI. A standard intervention of 3 d of treatment consisting of intramammary injections for all clinical cases was used. Two of the strategies reflected the use of more antibiotics and 6 strategies reflected cow-specific treatment or culling decisions. For these strategies, we assessed the cost and effectiveness of culling as an IMI intervention. Our results showed that nearly all strategies could reduce the number of IMI cases [e.g., a median of 37 clinical cases with the extended intramammary treatment over 5 d strategy (Basic5) and 30 clinical cases with the cow culled with recovery probability below 50% (Before50)] compared with the standard intervention (median of 42 clinical cases). This happened alongside either increased antibiotic usage (e.g., from a median of 123 treatment days up to 179 treatment days with strategy Basic5) or an increased number of cows culled in relation to IMI (e.g., from a median of 16 up to 24 cows with strategy Before50). Strategies with more antibiotics or reactive culling had a slightly higher net income (e.g., 190,014 median net income with strategy Basic5 or 196,995 with strategy Before50 compared with 187,666 with the standard strategy). This shows that a cow-specific clinical intervention approach can be cost-effective in reducing IMI incidence.
Subject(s)
Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Mastitis, Bovine/epidemiology , Staphylococcal Infections/veterinary , Animals , Anti-Bacterial Agents/economics , Anti-Bacterial Agents/therapeutic use , Cattle , Computer Simulation , Dairying/economics , Denmark/epidemiology , Female , Milk , Staphylococcal Infections/economics , Staphylococcal Infections/epidemiology , Staphylococcus aureusABSTRACT
The main objective of the study reported here was to examine the association between pregnancy loss (PL) and previous exposure to clinical or subclinical mastitis before breeding or during gestation in primiparous Holstein cows. A secondary objective was to estimate the cost of clinical mastitis during gestation, including that of PL attributable to mastitis in study cows. A total of 687 primiparous Holstein cows from 1 dairy farm were included in a matched case-control study. Study cows were declared pregnant via ultrasound on d 33 after timed artificial insemination (TAI). Case cows (n = 78) were those diagnosed as nonpregnant by rectal palpation on d 47 or 75 after TAI. Control cows were those confirmed as pregnant by rectal palpation on d 47 and 75 after TAI. Case cows were matched with eligible controls according to year of calving and calving-to-conception interval ±3 d. Cows were assigned to 1 of 3 groups: (1) cows not affected with clinical or subclinical mastitis; (2) cows affected with subclinical mastitis (Dairy Herd Improvement Association somatic cell score >4.5); and (3) cows affected with clinical mastitis during 2 exposure periods, 1 to 42 d before breeding or during gestation (1 to PL diagnosis day for case cows, and 1 to 75 d for control cows). Conditional logistic regression was used to model the odds of PL as a function of previous exposure to mastitis in study cows. Mastitis before breeding was not associated with PL. The odds of PL were 2.21 times greater in cows affected with clinical mastitis during gestation (95% confidence interval = 1.01, 4.83), compared with cows without mastitis, after controlling for breeding type and lameness. The cost of clinical mastitis during gestation was $149, which includes the cost ($27) of PL attributable to mastitis. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that clinical mastitis during gestation can cause PL in primiparous dairy cows leading to economic losses.
Subject(s)
Abortion, Veterinary/epidemiology , Mastitis, Bovine/epidemiology , Abortion, Veterinary/diagnosis , Abortion, Veterinary/economics , Animals , Breeding , Case-Control Studies , Cattle , Female , Fertilization , Insemination, Artificial/veterinary , Lactation , Mastitis, Bovine/diagnosis , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Parity , PregnancyABSTRACT
Antimicrobials are used in animal agriculture to cure bacterial infectious diseases. However, antimicrobial use (AMU) inevitably leads to the selection of resistant bacteria, potentially infecting humans. As a global public threat, antimicrobial resistance has led policy makers to implement regulations supervising AMU. The objective of our research was to investigate the farm impact of several potential policies aimed at decreasing AMU. We modeled a dairy herd of 1000 cows with an average level of disease prevalence for the nine most frequent bacterial dairy diseases found in western countries. We calculated the farm net costs of AMU prohibition, as well as cost increases in antimicrobial treatments prices, and an increase in the milk withdrawal period after AMU. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess the impact of output and input prices, and disease prevalence. At a mean disease prevalence, the average net costs of not using antimicrobials were $61 per cow per year greater compared to a scenario modeling current farm AMU. The model predicted that the minimum and maximum increased costs associated with AMU prohibition were $46 and $73 per cow per year compared to current AMU. In each scenario, the cost difference increased with disease prevalence. Sensitivity analysis showed that the three stochastic variables which most significantly influenced the cost difference were respectively, cow replacement prices, cow slaughter price, and the milk price. Antimicrobial price increases of a factor of five, or extending the milk withdrawal period by 15 days, resulted in increasing the costs of diseases to a level where the farmer was better off not using antimicrobials. Our results suggest that the farm level costs of AMU prohibition in many cases might be minor, although the consequences of any policy instrument should be carefully evaluated to reach the ultimate goal of decreasing AMU without threatening the sustainability of milk production.
Subject(s)
Anti-Infective Agents/therapeutic use , Dairying/economics , Farms/economics , Food Contamination/economics , Food Contamination/prevention & control , Withholding Treatment/economics , Agriculture/economics , Agriculture/methods , Animals , Anti-Infective Agents/administration & dosage , Cattle , Cattle Diseases/drug therapy , Cattle Diseases/economics , Costs and Cost Analysis , Dairying/methods , Drug Resistance, Multiple, Bacterial , Endometritis/drug therapy , Endometritis/economics , Endometritis/veterinary , Female , Infection Control/economics , Infection Control/methods , Mastitis, Bovine/drug therapy , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Milk/economics , Milk/microbiology , Models, EconometricABSTRACT
Recently, it has been shown that the addition of meloxicam to standard antimicrobial therapy for clinical mastitis (CM) improves the conception rate of dairy cows contracting CM in the first 120 d in milk. The objective of our study was to assess whether this improved reproduction through additional treatment with meloxicam would result in a positive net economic benefit for the farmer. We developed a stochastic bio-economic simulation model, in which a dairy cow with CM in the first 120 d in milk was simulated. Two scenarios were simulated in which CM cases were treated with meloxicam in conjunction with antimicrobial therapy or with antimicrobial therapy alone. The scenarios differed for conception rates (31% with meloxicam or 21% without meloxicam) and for the cost of CM treatment. Sensitivity analyses were undertaken for the biological and economic components of the model to assess the effects of a wide range of inputs on inferences about the cost effectiveness of meloxicam treatment. Model results showed an average net economic benefit of 42 per CM case per year in favor of the meloxicam scenario. Cows in the no-meloxicam treatment scenario had higher returns on milk production, lower costs upon calving, and reduced costs of treatment. However, these did not outweigh the savings associated with lower feed intake, reduced number of inseminations, and the reduced culling rate. The net economic benefit favoring meloxicam therapy was a consequence of the better reproductive performance in the meloxicam scenario in which cows had a shorter calving to conception interval (132 vs. 143 d), a shorter intercalving interval (405 vs. 416 d), and fewer inseminations per conception (2.9 vs. 3.7) compared with cows in the no-meloxicam treatment scenario. This resulted in a shorter lactation, hence a lower lactational milk production (8,441 vs. 8,517 kg per lactation) with lower feeding costs in the meloxicam group. A lower culling rate (12 vs. 25%) resulted in lower replacement costs in the meloxicam treatment scenario. All of the scenarios evaluated in the sensitivity analyses favored meloxicam treatment over no meloxicam. This study demonstrated that improvements in conception rate achieved by the use of meloxicam, as additional therapy for mild to moderate CM in the first 120 d in milk, have positive economic benefits. This inference remained true over a wide range of technical and economic inputs, demonstrating that use of meloxicam is likely to be cost effective across many production systems.
Subject(s)
Anti-Bacterial Agents/therapeutic use , Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal/therapeutic use , Dairying/economics , Mastitis, Bovine/drug therapy , Thiazines/therapeutic use , Thiazoles/therapeutic use , Animals , Cattle , Dairying/methods , Female , Lactation/drug effects , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Meloxicam , Milk/economics , Models, Economic , Reproduction , Stochastic ProcessesABSTRACT
Milk loss due to increased somatic cell counts (SCC) results in economic losses for dairy producers. This research uses 10 mo of consecutive dairy herd improvement data from 2013 and 2014 to estimate milk yield loss using SCC as a proxy for clinical and subclinical mastitis. A fixed effects regression was used to examine factors that affected milk yield while controlling for herd-level management. Breed, milking frequency, days in milk, seasonality, SCC, cumulative months with SCC greater than 100,000 cells/mL, lactation, and herd size were variables included in the regression analysis. The cumulative months with SCC above a threshold was included as a proxy for chronic mastitis. Milk yield loss increased as the number of test days with SCC ≥100,000 cells/mL increased. Results from the regression were used to estimate a monetary value of milk loss related to SCC as a function of cow and operation related explanatory variables for a representative dairy cow. The largest losses occurred from increased cumulative test days with a SCC ≥100,000 cells/mL, with daily losses of $1.20/cow per day in the first month to $2.06/cow per day in mo 10. Results demonstrate the importance of including the duration of months above a threshold SCC when estimating milk yield losses. Cows with chronic mastitis, measured by increased consecutive test days with SCC ≥100,000 cells/mL, resulted in higher milk losses than cows with a new infection. This provides farm managers with a method to evaluate the trade-off between treatment and culling decisions as it relates to mastitis control and early detection.
Subject(s)
Cell Count/veterinary , Dairying , Mastitis, Bovine/pathology , Milk , Animals , Cattle , Dairying/economics , Dairying/methods , Farms , Female , Lactation , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Mastitis, Bovine/physiopathology , United StatesABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to develop a mathematical model to identify a scenario with the lowest costs for mastitis associated with the dry period while restricting the percentage of cows to be dried off with dry cow antimicrobials. Costs of clinical and subclinical mastitis as well as antimicrobial use were quantified. Based on data from a large field trial, a linear programming model was built with the goal to minimize the costs associated with antimicrobial use at drying off. To enable calculations on minimizing costs of dry cow treatment on herd-level by drying-off decisions in an "average" herd, we created an example herd. Cows were projected on 3 different types of herds, based on bulk tank somatic cell count, and were categorized in groups based on parity and somatic cell count from the last test recording before drying-off. Economically optimal use of antimicrobials was determined while restricting the maximum percentage of cows dried off with antimicrobials from 100 to 0%. This restriction reveals the relationship between the maximum percentage of cows dried off with antibiotics and the economic consequences. A sensitivity analysis was performed to evaluate the effect of variation in the most important input variables, with the effect of dry cow antimicrobials resulting in a lower or higher percentage of clinical and subclinical mastitis depending on being dried off with or without dry cow antimicrobials, respectively, and the milk price. From an economic perspective, blanket dry cow treatment seems not to be the optimal approach of dry cow therapy, although differences between approaches were small. With lower bulk tank somatic cell counts, more dry cow antimicrobials can be omitted without economic consequences. The economic impact of reducing the percentage of clinical mastitis was found to be much larger than reducing the bulk tank somatic cell count. The optimal percentage of cows to be dried off with antimicrobials depends on the udder health situation, expressed as the bulk tank somatic cell count and the incidence of clinical mastitis. For all evaluated types of herds, selective dry cow treatment was economically more beneficial than blanket dry cow treatment. Economic profits of selective dry cow treatment are greater if bulk tank somatic cell count and clinical mastitis incidence are lower. Economics is not an argument against reduction of dry cow antimicrobials by applying selective dry cow treatment.
Subject(s)
Anti-Bacterial Agents/therapeutic use , Mastitis, Bovine/prevention & control , Animals , Anti-Bacterial Agents/economics , Cattle , Cell Count/veterinary , Female , Lactation , Mammary Glands, Animal/drug effects , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Models, Biological , PregnancyABSTRACT
A large part of the world's resources are used to produce animal products. Efficient use of these resources is important to improve social well-being. Endemic animal diseases decrease production efficiency, because they require a higher level of input to produce the same amount of output or result in a lower output with the same amount of input. The optimal level of production with and without disease differs from farm to farm and depends on varying economic circumstances. Given these difficulties, making an accurate theoretical estimation of the economic impact of endemic diseases is challenging. Current approaches towards the economic assessment of endemic diseases are, therefore, quite pragmatic. For on-farm decision-making, the total costs consist of failure costs and preventive costs. Failure costs are associated with production losses (i.e. decreases in milk production, mortality and culling), treatment costs (i.e. veterinary treatment, drugs, and discarded milk) and the use of other resources associated with the occurrence of disease (i.e. increased labour costs). Preventive costs are associated with preventive measures in terms of equipment, consumables (e.g. diagnostics and chemicals) and the use of other resources to prevent diseases (i.e. increased labour). There is a substitution relationship between failure costs and preventive costs. That means that, in order to maximise profit at the farm level, the amount of resources invested in prevention should be chosen in such a way that total costs are minimised. The most studied endemic disease in animal production is mastitis. Most publications on mastitis only assess failure costs, and studies on assessing the total costs and best methods to determine an optimal level of prevention are scarce. Future challenges lie in researching frameworks that can assist decision-makers to establish optimal prevention levels for endemic diseases.
Une grande partie des ressources mondiales est consacrée à la production de produits d'origine animale. Il est important d'utiliser rationnellement ces ressources si l'on veut améliorer le bien-être des sociétés. Les maladies animales endémiques réduisent la rentabilité des élevages car en cas de maladie il faut plus d'intrants pour maintenir le niveau de production, tandis que celui-ci décroît si la quantité d'intrants demeure inchangée. Le niveau optimal de production avec ou sans maladie varie d'une exploitation à l'autre et dépend du contexte et des fluctuations économiques. Ces facteurs complexes expliquent la difficulté de réaliser une estimation théorique exacte de l'impact économique des maladies endémiques. En conséquence, les approches actuelles en matière d'évaluation économique des maladies animales privilégient le pragmatisme. Au niveau décisionnel des élevages, les coûts totaux englobent les pertes d'exploitation et les coûts de la prévention. Les pertes d'exploitation sont liées aux pertes de production (baisse de la production de lait, mortalité et animaux sacrifiés), au coût des traitements (prestations vétérinaires, médicaments, perte de lait en raison des traitements) et à l'utilisation d'autres ressources en lien avec l'apparition de la maladie (augmentation des coûts de main-d'oeuvre). Les coûts de prévention sont liés aux mesures de prévention et couvrent les équipements, les consommables (les réactifs et matériels de diagnostic et les produits chimiques) et l'utilisation d'autres ressources pour prévenir les maladies (augmentation des coûts de maind'oeuvre). Les pertes d'exploitation et les coûts de prévention sont mutuellement substituables. Ainsi, pour optimiser la rentabilité à l'échelle de la ferme, il conviendra de choisir le montant des ressources investies dans la prévention de manière à minimiser les coûts totaux. La mammite est la maladie endémique la plus étudiée en production animale. La plupart des publications sur la mammite évaluent uniquement les coûts de perte d'exploitation, peu d'études ayant été consacrées à l'évaluation des coûts totaux ou aux méthodes permettant de déterminer le niveau optimal de la prévention. Les défis futurs consisteront à élaborer des cadres permettant d'aider les décideurs à déterminer les niveaux optimaux de la prévention des maladies endémiques.
Buena parte de los recursos del mundo se destinan a la obtención de productos de origen animal. Para alcanzar mayores cotas de bienestar social es importante pues utilizar esos recursos de modo eficiente. Las enfermedades animales endémicas merman la eficiencia productiva porque exigen una mayor cantidad de insumos para obtener el mismo nivel de producción o, alternativamente, reducen la producción obtenida por una misma cantidad de insumos. El nivel óptimo de producción, en presencia y en ausencia de enfermedades, difiere de una explotación a otra y depende de parámetros económicos que son variables. Estas dificultades explican por qué resulta tan arduo hacer una estimación teórica precisa del impacto económico de enfermedades endémicas. De ahí que los métodos actuales para evaluar en clave económica las enfermedades endémicas revistan un carácter bastante empírico. En lo que concierne a las decisiones adoptadas en el ámbito de la explotación, el costo total está formado por las pérdidas de explotación y los costos de prevención. Las pérdidas de explotación vienen determinadas por las pérdidas productivas (menor producción de leche, mortalidad y animales sacrificados), el costo de los tratamientos (servicios veterinarios, medicamentos y leche desechada a consecuencia del tratamiento) y el uso de otros recursos ligados a la aparición de la enfermedad (mayores costes laborales). Los costos de prevención, que son aquellos vinculados a las medidas profilácticas, corresponden al equipo empleado, los bienes consumibles (como productos químicos o de diagnóstico) y la utilización de otros recursos para prevenir enfermedades (mayores costes laborales). Existe una relación de sustitución entre las pérdidas de explotación y los costos de prevención. Ello significa que, para que una explotación rinda el máximo beneficio, conviene fijar la cantidad de recursos invertidos en prevención de tal manera que ello reduzca al mínimo los costos totales. La enfermedad endémica más estudiada en producción animal es la mastitis. En la mayoría de las publicaciones que se le han dedicado solo se evalúan las pérdidas de explotación, y en cambio escasean los estudios encaminados a evaluar los costos totales o a definir el mejor método para determinar el nivel óptimo de prevención. De cara al futuro, se trata de buscar modelos que puedan ayudar a las instancias decisorias a fijar los niveles óptimos de prevención de enfermedades endémicas.
Subject(s)
Dairying/economics , Endemic Diseases/veterinary , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Animals , Cattle , Endemic Diseases/economics , Endemic Diseases/prevention & control , Female , Mastitis, Bovine/prevention & controlABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to use probabilistic sensitivity analysis to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of using an on-farm culture (OFC) approach to the treatment of clinical mastitis in dairy cows and compare this to a 'standard' treatment approach. A specific aim was to identify the herd circumstances under which an OFC approach would be most likely to be cost-effective. A stochastic Monte Carlo model was developed to simulate 5000 cases of clinical mastitis at the cow level and to calculate the associated costs simultaneously when treated according to 2 different treatment protocols; i) a 'conventional' approach (3 tubes of intramammary antibiotic) and ii) an OFC programme, whereby cows are treated according to the results of OFC. Model parameters were taken from recent peer reviewed literature on the use of OFC prior to treatment of clinical mastitis. Spearman rank correlation coefficients were used to evaluate the relationships between model input values and the estimated difference in cost between the standard and OFC treatment protocols. The simulation analyses revealed that both the difference in the bacteriological cure rate due to a delay in treatment when using OFC and the proportion of Gram-positive cases that occur on a dairy unit would have a fundamental impact on whether OFC would be cost-effective. The results of this study illustrated that an OFC approach for the treatment of clinical mastitis would probably not be cost-effective in many circumstances, in particular, not those in which Gram-positive pathogens were responsible for more than 20% of all clinical cases. The results highlight an ethical dilemma surrounding reduced use of antimicrobials for clinical mastitis since it may be associated with financial losses and poorer cow welfare in many instances.
Subject(s)
Anti-Bacterial Agents/therapeutic use , Cost-Benefit Analysis , Mastitis, Bovine/diagnosis , Mastitis, Bovine/drug therapy , Animals , Bacteriological Techniques , Cattle , Dairying/methods , Farms , Female , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Milk , Treatment OutcomeABSTRACT
Bovine mastitis is an important animal production disease that affects the dairy industry globally. Studies have estimated the prevalence of this disease in approximately 30% of African countries, with the highest prevalence found in Ethiopia. This is despite the wide cattle distribution in Africa, and the largest number of dairy farms and herds in countries such as South Africa, Kenya and Uganda. Furthermore, the estimated financial losses due to direct and indirect impacts of bovine mastitis are lacking in this continent. Therefore, intensive research efforts will help determine the continent-wide economic impacts and advance careful monitoring of disease prevalence and epidemiology. Here, published cases supporting the occurrence and importance of bovine mastitis in certain regions of Africa are outlined.
Subject(s)
Mastitis, Bovine/epidemiology , Africa/epidemiology , Animals , Cattle , Dairying/economics , Female , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Mastitis, Bovine/microbiology , PrevalenceABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to estimate the economic impact of mastitis at the herd level and the weight (percent) of the components of this impact in a Holstein dairy herd under tropical conditions. Three estimates of the economic impact of mastitis were performed. In estimates 1 and 2 the real production and economic indices from February 2011 to January 2012 were considered. In the estimate 1, indices for mastitis classified as ideal were considered, whereas in the estimate 2, the mastitis indices used were those recorded at the farm and at Holstein Cattle Association of Minas Gerais State database (real indices). Ideal mastitis indices were bulk milk somatic cell counts less than 250,000 cells/mL, incidence of clinical mastitis less than 25 cases/100 cows/year, number of culls due to udder health problems less than 5% and the percentage of cows with somatic cell counts greater than 200,000 cells/mL less than 20%. Considering the ideal indices of mastitis, the economic impact was US$19,132.35. The three main components of the economic impact were culling cows (39.4%) and the reduction in milk production due to subclinical and clinical mastitis (32.3% and 18.2%, respectively). Estimate 2 using real mastitis indices showed an economic impact of US$61,623.13 and the reduction in milk production due to mastitis (77.7%) and milk disposal (14.0%) were the most relevant components. The real impact of culling cows was approximately 16 times less than the weight that was considered ideal, indicating that this procedure could have been more frequently adopted. The reduction in milk production was 27.2% higher than the reduction in Estimate 1, indicating a need to control and prevent mastitis. The estimate 3 considered the same indices as estimate 2, but for the period from February 2012 to January 2013. Its economic impact was US$91,552.69. During this period, 161 treatments of cows with an intramammary antibiotic were performed to eliminate Streptococcus agalactiae, and eight cows chronically infected with Staphylococcus aureus were culled. The reduction in milk production due to mastitis was the main component of the economic impact (54.9%). The culling of cows with chronic infection was associated with an increase in the economic impact of mastitis and a reduction in the average productivity per cow. At the herd level reduction in milk production was the component that presented the largest weight in the economic impact of the disease.
Subject(s)
Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Milk/microbiology , Staphylococcal Infections/veterinary , Tropical Climate , Animals , Cattle , Dairying , Female , Mammary Glands, Animal/microbiology , Mastitis , Mastitis, Bovine/epidemiology , Staphylococcal Infections/economics , Staphylococcal Infections/epidemiology , Staphylococcus aureusABSTRACT
Contagem de células somáticas (CCS) e produção de leite de vacas mestiças Holandês x Gir foram utilizadas para avaliação da perda de produção de leite estimada por duas metodologias, baseadas na CCS média da lactação total encerrada ou na CCS e nas pesagens de leite em diferentes estágios de lactação. Nas primíparas consideradas com mastite subclínica (CCS ≥ 200.000 células mL-1), a perda de produção na lactação total, avaliada pela CCS média da lactação, foi de 814kg. Para as multíparas, não houve diferença na produção de leite entre vacas com e sem MSC com base na CCS média da lactação. A estimativa avaliada por meio de testes mensais de CCS e pesagens de leite em diferentes estágios de lactação, balanceada pela prevalência de mastite subclínica do mês foi de 917,9kg para primíparas e 1178,9kg para multíparas. A contraposição da produção de leite com a CCS em diferentes estágios da lactação evidenciou maior perda de produção em relação à observação da CCS média da lactação. A perda de produção de leite de vacas baseada na CCS média de toda a lactação foi subestimada quando comparada à contraposição da produção de leite com CCS em diferentes estágios da lactação.(AU)
Somatic cell count (SCC) and milk production of crossbred Holstein x Gir were used to evaluate the estimated loss of milk production two methodologies, based on the average SCC of total closed lactation, or average SCC and weighing milk at different stages of lactation. In primiparous with SCC mL ≥200,000 cells-1 production loss in the total lactation, evaluated by the average lactation SCC, was 814 kilograms. For multiparous, there was no difference in milk production between cows with and without SCM based on the SCC media of lactation. The estimate of lost production assessed through monthly testing of SCC and milk weighing at different stages of lactation, balanced by the prevalence of subclinical mastitis, was 917.9kg for primiparous and 1178.9kg for multiparous. The estimative of milk production with CCS at different stages of lactation showed greater loss of milk production when compared to the estimative based on the average SCC throughout the period of lactation. The milk production loss method based on the average somatic cell count of the whole lactation was underestimated when compared to the method based on average SCC in different stages of lactation.(AU)
Subject(s)
Animals , Female , Cattle , Mammary Glands, Animal/microbiology , Mastitis, Bovine/economics , Milk/microbiologyABSTRACT
Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland that is considered to be one of the most frequent and costly diseases in the dairy industry. Also in Ethiopia, bovine mastitis is one of the most frequently encountered diseases of dairy cows. However, there was no study, so far, regarding the costs of clinical mastitis and only two studies were reported on costs of subclinical mastitis. Presenting an appropriate and complete study of the costs of mastitis will help farmers in making management decisions for mastitis control. The objective of this study was to estimate the economic effects of mastitis on Ethiopian market-oriented dairy farms. Market-oriented dairy farming is driven by making profits through selling milk in the market on a regular basis. A dynamic stochastic Monte-Carlo simulation model (bio-economic model) was developed taking into account both clinical and subclinical mastitis. Production losses, culling, veterinarian costs, treatment, discarded milk, and labour were the main cost factors which were modeled in this study. The annual incidence of clinical mastitis varied from 0 to 50% with a mean annual incidence of 21.6%, whereas the mean annual incidence of subclinical mastitis was 36.2% which varied between 0 and 75%. The total costs due to mastitis for a default farm size of 8 lactating cows were 6,709 ETB per year (838 ETB per cow per year). The costs varied considerably, with 5th and 95th percentiles of 109 ETB and 22,009 ETB, respectively. The factor most contributing to the total annual cost of mastitis was culling. On average a clinical case costs 3,631 ETB, varying from 0 to 12,401, whereas a sub clinical case costs 147 ETB, varying from 0 to 412. The sensitivity analysis showed that the total costs at the farm level were most sensitive for variation in the probability of occurrence of clinical mastitis and the probability of culling. This study helps farmers to raise awareness about the actual costs of mastitis and motivate them to timely treat and/or take preventive measures. As a results, the dairy industry will improve.