Is the Jaw Bone Micro-Structure Altered in Response to Osteoporosis and Bisphosphonate Treatment? A Micro-CT Analysis.

The aim of the study was to quantify the micro-architectural changes of the jaw bone in response to ovariectomy, exposed or not to bisphosphonate treatment. A total of 47 Wistar rats were ovariectomized (OVX) or sham-operated (shOVX) and exposed to osteoporosis preventive treatment for eight weeks either with bisphosphonates (alendronate, ALN; group OVX-ALN) three days/week at a dose of 2 mg/kg or with saline solution (untreated control condition; group OVX). The bone morphometric parameters of the trabecular jaw bone were assessed using ex vivo micro-computed tomography. The regions of interest investigated in the maxilla were the inter-radicular septum of the second molar and the tuber. The regions quantified in the mandible included the three molar regions and the condyle. A one-way analysis of variance followed by pairwise comparison using Tukey's HSD and the Games-Howell test was conducted to explore significant differences between the groups. In the maxilla, OVX decreased the bone volume in the inter-radicular septum of the second molar. Bisphosphonate treatment was able to prevent this deterioration of the jaw bone. The other investigated maxillary regions were not affected by (un)treated ovariectomy. In the mandible, OVX had a significant negative impact on the jaw bone in the buccal region of the first molar and the inter-radicular region of the third molar. Treatment with ALN was able to prevent this jaw bone loss. At the condyle site, OVX significantly deteriorated the trabecular connectivity and shape, whereas preventive bisphosphonate treatment showed a positive effect on this trabecular bone region. No significant results between the groups were observed for the remaining regions of interest. In summary, our results showed that the effects of ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis are manifested at selected jaw bone regions and that bisphosphonate treatment is capable to prevent these oral bone changes.

Structure and function of the stylets of hematophagous Triatominae (Hemiptera: Reduviidae), with special reference to Dipetalogaster maxima.

Kissing bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Triatominae) are able to bend their rod-like maxillae while searching for blood vessels in the tissue of their vertebrate hosts. Little is known about the working mechanisms of these bending movements and the distal opening of the food channel. We compared the morphological structure of the stylets (mandibles and maxillae) of four triatomine species and analyzed the feeding process of Dipetalogaster maxima (Uhler, 1894). The maxillae of triatomine bugs are interlocked by a tongue-and-groove system, allowing longitudinal sliding. While penetrating the host tissue, the animals perform rapid alternate back and forth movements of the maxillae. The resistance of the surrounding tissue pushes the asymmetric apex of the maxillae away from its straight path, i.e., if one individual maxilla is protracted alone, its tip curves inwards, and the other maxilla follows. Once a blood vessel is tapped, the spine-like tip of the left maxilla splays outwards. Apically, each of the maxillae features an abutment, the left one exhibiting a notch that presumably facilitates splaying. The mechanical interaction of the two maxillary abutments enables the distal opening of the food channel but might also support the movements of the maxillary bundle attributable to different bending moment distributions.

Unveiling toxicological aspects of venom from the Aesculapian False Coral Snake Erythrolamprus aesculapii.

Most colubrid snake venoms have been poorly studied, despite the fact that they represent a great resource for biological, ecological, toxinological and pharmacological research. Herein, we explore the venom delivery system of the Aesculapian False Coral Snake Erythrolamprus aesculapii as well as some biochemical and toxicological properties of its venom. Its Duvernoy's venom gland is composed of serous secretory cells arranged in densely packed secretory tubules, and the most striking feature of its fang is their double-curved shape, exhibiting a beveled bladelike appearance near the tips. Although E. aesculapii resembles elapid snakes of the genus Micrurus in color pattern, this species produces a venom reminiscent of viperid venoms, containing mainly tissue-damaging toxins such as proteinases. Prominent hemorrhage developed both locally and systemically in mice injected with the venom, and the minimum hemorrhagic dose was found to be 18.8 µg/mouse; the lethal dose, determined in mice, was 9.5 ±â€¯3.7 µg/g body weight. This work has toxicological implications that bites to humans by E. aesculapii could result in moderately severe local (and perhaps systemic) hemorrhage and gives insight into future directions for research on the venom of this species.

Three-Dimensional Assessment of Crown Size and Eruption Space for Developing Third Molars: Data Collection Techniques Based on Cone-Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT).

Third molar development and eruption are two related areas of major interest in dental research into the etiology of "wisdom tooth" impaction. Third molars are not only an excellent model for studying dental development but also of fundamental clinical importance because they are very frequently impacted. Because the third molar is located in the distal-most region of the oral cavity, clinical access is relatively challenging. With the increasingly widespread use of cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) in dentistry, studies and measurements of the third molar and its eruption area have become considerably easier to do. Here we present a novel CBCT-based measurement methodology we developed for our recent investigations that we hope will also be useful for the broader dental research community.

Functional morphology of the mouthparts of lady beetle Coccinella transversoguttata (Coccinellidae, Coleoptera), with reference to their feeding mechanism.

The lady beetle Coccinella transversoguttata is an important biocontrol agent of aphids. As the main the feeding apparatus, mouthparts play essential roles in feeding process, and the morphological variation of mouthparts is correlated with variation in food source and feeding behavior. To better understand the feeding behavior of C. transversoguttata, we studied the functional morphology of mouthparts, with special attention to the fine morphology of each part of mouthpart and various kinds of sensilla. The mouthpart of C. transversoguttata is typical mandibulate type that composed of labrum, mandible, maxillae, labium, and hypopharynx. Detailed descriptions were given about the fine morphology of each part, and various types of sensilla were identified and classified. In total, two types of sensilla chaetica, four types of sensilla basiconica, two types of sensilla styloconica, two types of sensilla placodea, and one type of cuticular pore were identified according to their length, morphology and distribution. Specially, the putative function of each part of mouthpart as well as each kind of sensilla and their coordinative mechanisms in feeding process were discussed. These results would lay a solid foundation for understanding the feeding mechanism of lady beetles.

Biocompatibility Studies of Nanoengineered Polycaprolactone and Nanohydroxyapatite Scaffold for Craniomaxillofacial Bone Regeneration.

Currently there is an increased demand for synthetic bone substitute materials (SBSMs) due to avoidance of donor-site surgery and morbidity. Attempts are done to create SBSM mimicking the bone microarchitecture for enhanced healing. In this study, the authors nanoengineered polycaprolactone (PCL) and nanohydroxyapatite (nHAp) composite scaffold by electrospinning. The nHAp is synthesized via hydrothermal process followed by microwave irradiation. In vitro biocompatibility evaluation with MG63 osteoblastic cell line showed enhanced cell proliferation in the PCL-nHAp scaffold than plain PCL by MTT assay and fluorescence microscopy. Increased osteogenesis in the PCL-nHAp scaffold was shown by the increased calcium load, alkaline phosphatase activity, and expression of osteogenic biomarkers namely osteocalcin, osteonectin, and osteopontin. In vivo studies conducted in rabbit femur bone defects showed increased bone regeneration in PCL-nHAp implanted defects. The results show that PCL-nHAp electrospun scaffold is biomimetic and highly osteogenic and thus a potential SBSM for critical size craniomaxillofacial bone defect applications.

A robust methodology for the quantitative assessment of the rat jawbone microstructure.

Micro-computed tomography can be applied for the assessment of the micro-architectural characteristics of the cortical and trabecular bones in either physiological or disease conditions. However, reports often lack a detailed description of the methodological steps used to analyse these images, such as the volumes of interest, the algorithms used for image filtration, the approach used for image segmentation, and the bone parameters quantified, thereby making it difficult to compare or reproduce the studies. This study addresses this critical need and aims to provide standardized assessment and consistent parameter reporting related to quantitative jawbone image analysis. Various regions of the rat jawbones were screened for their potential for standardized micro-computed tomography analysis. Furthermore, the volumes of interest that were anticipated to be most susceptible to bone structural changes in response to experimental interventions were defined. In the mandible, two volumes of interest were selected, namely, the condyle and the trabecular bone surrounding the three molars. In the maxilla, the maxillary tuberosity region and the inter-radicular septum of the second molar were considered as volumes of interest. The presented protocol provides a standardized and reproducible methodology for the analysis of relevant jawbone volumes of interest and is intended to ensure global, accurate, and consistent reporting of its morphometry. Furthermore, the proposed methodology has potential, as a variety of rodent animal models would benefit from its implementation.

Supernumerary fourth molar and dental pathologies in a Chalcolithic individual from the El Mirador Cave site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain).

We present a middle-aged Chalcolithic male with a supernumerary distomolar in the mandible. The prevalence of supernumerary teeth in present-day populations is low, ranging from 0.1% to 3.4%; most supernumerary teeth are documented in the anterior and molar regions of the maxilla in present populations. However, the prevalence of supernumerary molars in past populations is still unknown. Moreover, a complete pathological study has been done of this individual. Maxilla, mandible and teeth have been analyzed searching for dental pathologies. A cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) analysis of mandibular and maxillary fragments was performed to check the evidence of hyperdontia. Dental wear and maxillary alveolar bone have been analyzed with environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) to improve the diagnosis of an abscess and evidence of tooth picking. This individual shows a left distomolar in the mandible without any evidence of other supernumerary teeth. The fourth molar is not associated with any congenital disease. However, this individual suffered severe dental wear and a variety of oral pathologies such as, dental decay, abscesses, pulpitis, periodontal disease, toothpicking marks in an upper molar, arthritis of the temporomandibular joint and malocclusion associated with high masticatory loads. To our knowledge, this individual from El Mirador Cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain) shows the most ancient case of a fourth molar documented. The poor oral health of this individual corresponds to the general dental health of Chalcolithic populations.

Microarchitectural pattern of pristine maxillary bone.

PURPOSE: There is limited evidence available on the influence of location on bone density in the maxilla. Therefore, this study was aimed at comparing the microarchitecture of bone harvested from different nonatrophic maxillary locations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 37 partially edentulous subjects (aged 48.15 ± 15.85 years) were included in the study. A bone core biopsy specimen was obtained from one site per patient at the planned implant surgery location. Thirty-four specimens were used for microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) analysis. Mann-Whitney U tests (independent samples) were performed to determine whether the distributions of the six bone-related parameters showed significant differences between sexes and site locations. Study sites were categorized as either anterior (incisors and canines) or posterior (premolars and molars). The possible associations among variables (bone volume fraction [BV/TV], age, and five bone-related parameters) were examined using the Spearman rank correlation test. RESULTS: The mean BV/TV values showed no significant difference between the maxillary anterior (46.93 ± 26.2) and posterior (51.90 ± 28.42) locations. Statistically significant positive correlations were identified between BV/TV and trabecular thickness (Tb.Th) (r = 0.6, P < .001) and between BV/TV and trabecular number (Tb.N) (r = 0.49, P = .006). Statistically significant negative correlations were found between BV/TV and trabecular spacing (Tb.Sp) (r = -0.65, P < .001), between BV/TV and trabecular pattern factor (Tb.Pf) (r = -0.7, P <.001), and between BV/TV and the structural model index (SMI) (r = -0.68, P <.001). However, no correlations between BV/TV and age or sex were found. CONCLUSION: Bone density was independent of the anatomical location, assessed by micro-CT in the pristine nonatrophic maxillary bone. Studies with a larger sample size and different population should be conducted to validate the findings of the current project.

A morphological study of the multi infraorbital canals of the maxilla in the Japanese macaque by cone-beam computed tomography.

The infraorbital canal in the Japanese macaque is composed of main and accessory canals. However, the morphological features of the infraorbital canal, such as the canal course and the supply of infraorbital vessels and nerves in the maxilla, are poorly characterized. In this study, we show the structure of the infraorbital canal of the Japanese macaque (adults; 10 male, 9 female), including the distribution of these vessels and nerves, using cone-beam computed tomography and a macroscopic apparatus. The superior and lateral margins of the orbit were correlated with the infraorbital canal on three-dimensional reconstruction images (P<0.05). We classified three types of multi infraorbital foramina as follows: type 1 had one accessory foramen, type 2 had two accessory foramina, and type 3 had three accessory foramina in the infraorbital canal. The infraorbital canal also formed three structures, specifically, a tube-like shape, a funnel shape, and a pinched shape. The accessory canals also contained nerves and blood vessels, and the canals ran downward and supplied the maxillary sinus, teeth, and midfacial region of the craniofacial skeleton, while passing through a few branch canals. These accessory canals proved valuable for blood vessels and nerves and allowed us to recognize the maxilla in the Japanese macaque skull.

Segmental odontomaxillary dysplasia: report of a case emphasizing histopathological, immunohistochemical and scanning electron microscopic features.

Segmental odontomaxillary dysplasia (SOD) is a rare developmental disorder of the maxilla, and there is little information on its morphological features. Thus, the present article describes a case of SOD focusing on its histopathological, immunohistochemical and scanning electron microscopic features. Several dental abnormalities were present, including numerous dentin and pulp defects, altered composition of hard tissue, and proliferation of myofibroblasts in the pulp and the soft tissue surrounding affected teeth. This myofibroblastic proliferation was identified for the first time in SOD and may be involved in both bone and tooth resorption mechanisms.

Sensilla on antenna and maxillary palp of predaceous fly, Lispe neimongola Tian et Ma (Diptera: Muscidae).

This study describes aspects of sensilla on the antennae and maxillary palps of an aquatic predator, Lispe neimongola Tian et Ma. Types, distribution and density of sensilla were studied by stereoscopic microscope and scanning electron microscopy. The antennal scape has one type of sensilla, the sharp-tipped chaetic sensilla; whereas, the antennal pedicel possesses two subtypes of these sensilla. Three types of sensilla are found on antennal funiculus: trichoid sensilla, basiconic sensilla (two subtypes) and clavate sensilla. Sensilla found on palpal surface include the third subtype of basiconic sensilla and chaetic sensilla. Two unique sensillar characters of L. neimongola detected are the absence of coeloconic sensilla on antennal funiculus and the greater number of basiconic sensilla on spoon-like palps. These results are compared with equivalent findings in several other Calyptratae fly species of different ecotypes to provide evidence of adaptation to their environment.

Is micro-computed tomography reliable to determine the microstructure of the maxillary alveolar bone?

OBJECTIVES: To analyze the reliability of micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) to assess bone density and the microstructure of the maxillary bones at the alveolar process in human clinics by direct comparison with conventional stereologic-based histomorphometry. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Analysis of osseous microstructural variables including bone volumetric density (BV/TV) of 39 biopsies from the maxillary alveolar bone was performed by micro-CT. Conventional stereologic-based histomorphometry of 10 bone biopsies was performed by optic microscopy (OM) and low-vacuum surface electronic microscopy (SEM). Percentages of bone between micro-CT and conventional stereologic-based histomorphometry were compared. RESULTS: Significant positive correlations were observed between BV/TV and the percentage of bone (%Bone) analyzed by SEM (r = 0.933, P < 0.001), by toluidine blue staining OM (r = 0.950, P < 0.001) and by dark field OM (r = 0.667, P = 0.05). The high positive correlation coefficient between BV/TV and trabecular thickness illustrates that a value of BV/TV upper than 50% squares with a bone presenting most of their trabecules thicker than 0.2 mm. The high negative correlation between BV/TV and trabecular separation shows that values of BV/TV upper than 50% squares with a bone presenting most of their trabecules separated less than 0.3 mm each other. CONCLUSION: BV/TV assessed by micro-CT correlates with the percentage of bone assessed by conventional stereologic-based histomorphometry. Micro-CT is a reliable technique to determine the bone density and the microstructure of the maxillary alveolar bone at the site of dental implant insertion.

The influence of perforating the autogenous block bone and the recipient bed in dogs. Part II: histologic analysis.

OBJECTIVES: This study histologically evaluated the influence of cortical perforation of grafted autogenous block bone (ABB) and/or the recipient bed at different healing periods in dogs. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Four ABBs harvested from the posterior mandible were bilaterally fixed onto the maxillary premolar region in five mongrel dogs. The experiments involved four groups according to the perforation site: the ABB and/or the recipient bed. The animals were killed at 1, 4, and 10 days (early healing periods) and 4 and 8 weeks (late healing periods) postoperatively. Specimens were prepared for histological evaluation. RESULTS: In the perforated ABB groups, blood clots had reached the inner surface of the ABB through a surgically prepared pathway, indicating that revascularization had taken place earlier than in the solid ABB groups. Finger-like bony projections into the graft were observed at the interfaces between the ABB and the recipient bed at the fourth week in all four groups. The remodeling process was observed over the entire ABB in the perforated ABB groups, whereas in the solid ABB groups it occurred only at the interface, and the ABB maintained its original lamella structure with more osteoclastic activity. Interestingly, in the perforated ABB groups, additional new bone with a smooth margin was formed above the block bone's original border. CONCLUSION: It was conjectured that intentional cortical perforation of the recipient bed and the ABB might enhance the initial angiogenesis and the integration of the graft.

Bone tissue microarchitectural characteristics at dental implant sites. Part 1: identification of clinical-related parameters.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the characteristics of bone tissue microarchitecture by microCT at dental implant bone sites, describing them in terms of clinical parameters. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Forty-six bone implant sites of the maxilla and mandible from 32 volunteers were evaluated by conventional radiographs and CT scans. During the installation of each implant, bone biopsies were removed using a trephine bur at the first drilling to prepare the socket implant. Each sample was evaluated by microCT and dimensional parameters measured. RESULTS: Factor analysis summarized the microparameters into four components, which accounted for 92.8% of the total variance. The identified factors were (1) architecture - variables affecting 3D trabecular bone configuration and organization, (2) density - variables relating to surface/volume ratios and volume/volume ratios, (3) bulk - variables relating to the amount of bone and (4) spacing - variable related to the distance between trabeculae and the quantity and organization of marrow spaces. CONCLUSION: These four summarized factors correspond to clinical and radiographically recognizable parameters used for routine bone quality evaluation for implant treatment planning, which can potentially influence the primary stability of dental implants. The understanding of factors related to bone microarchitecture might reveal important aspects of its mechanical properties, essential for implant success.

Relationship between files that bind at the apical foramen and foramen openings in maxillary central incisors--a SEM study.

Considering that instrumentation of the apical foramen has been suggested for root canal infection control, this study analyzed the relationship between the files that bind at the apical foramen and the foraminal openings in 50 maxillary central incisors. After preparation of the pulp chamber, access to the canal was obtained with #1 and 2 LA Axxess and K-files with tip cut were inserted up to the apical foramen until binding was felt. The files were fixed with methyl cyanoacrylate and the tooth-file sets were cross-sectioned 10 mm short of the apex. Scanning electron microscopic analysis was carried out and files and foraminal areas were measured using Image Tool software. Statistically significant difference (p<0.0001) was found between files and the apical foraminal areas. The mean foraminal area was 3.8 times larger than the mean file area. The results of this study suggest that it would require 4 files of greater size beyond the one that bound to the foramen in order to allow a better relationship between files and apical openings of maxillary central incisors.

[Application of ultrasonography in diagnosis and treatment of acute inflammation of soft tissues in maxillofacial region and neck].

We investigated the value of ultrasonography (USG) and ultrasound-guided aspirations in diagnosis and treatment of acute inflammation of soft tissues in maxillofacial region and neck. We performed 174 USG in 136 patients (73 with abscesses and phlegmons, 27 with acute lymphadenitis, 16 with inflamed cysts, 12 with parotitis, 3 with sialolithiasis and 5 with diseases, simulated acute inflammation). Ultrasound-guided aspirations performed in 35 patients. We considered USG to be useful diagnostic tool in acute inflammation of soft tissues in maxillofacial region and neck. USG allowed to determine localization and stage of inflammation, discriminate it from non-inflammatory diseases and improve assessment of its dynamics. Ultrasound-guided aspirations was a valuable tool for diagnostic and treatment purposes in inflamed cysts.

Histomorphic-metric evaluation of an implant retrieved from human maxilla after 13 years.

Fixture fracture is the most catastrophic failure of implant components because it usually causes the loss of the implant. Nevertheless, the osseointegrated fractured implants represent a very useful opportunity to study in humans the effects of loading to the peri-implant bone microstructure. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the interplay between microstructure and function of the bone around an implant retrieved from human maxilla after 13 years. There was 1 fractured Dental Implant Line (sand blasted surface from a patient placed in the anterior region of the maxillary bone (2.1) after a bone augmentation procedure, and it was processed for histology. The specimen was analyzed under the scanning electron microscope (SEM), the confocal scanning laser microscope (CSLM) and brightfield light microscope (LM) equipped with circularly polarized light (CPL). The BIC rate of the implant retrieved after 13 years was (mean ±SD) 68.7 ± 3.7. The crestal bone down the implant platform damage appeared to be under modeling process. The transverse collagen fiber orientation (CFO) (mean ±SD) under the lower flank of the threads was 20.4 ± 3.5 x 10(4) pixel while the longitudinal CFO was 19.8 ± 2.8 x 10(4) pixel (P>.05). In the inter-threads region the transverse CFO (mean ±SD) was 15.0 ± 4.0 x 10(4) pixel while the longitudinal CFO was 21.4 ± 3.0 x 10(4) pixel (P>.05). The osteocytes numbers (mean ±SD) was 130 ∓ 34. Under SEM with back scattered electrons (BSE) signal the peri-implant bone appears mainly lamellar and highly mature with several osteons organized in the implant inter-threads areas. The fracture of the implant was most probably correlated to a fatigue of the material mainly associated to a damage of the internal coil. Surprisingly, it was noted a lack of implant site-specific CFO of the bone extracellular matrix facing the threaded dental implant notwithstanding the high level of BIC rate.

Relationship between files that bind at the apical foramen and foramen openings in maxillary central incisors - a SEM study

Considering that instrumentation of the apical foramen has been suggested for root canal infection control, this study analyzed the relationship between the files that bind at the apical foramen and the foraminal openings in 50 maxillary central incisors. After preparation of the pulp chamber, access to the canal was obtained with #1 and 2 LA Axxess and K-files with tip cut were inserted up to the apical foramen until binding was felt. The files were fixed with methyl cyanoacrylate and the tooth-file sets were cross-sectioned 10 mm short of the apex. Scanning electron microscopic analysis was carried out and files and foraminal areas were measured using Image Tool software. Statistically significant difference (p<0.0001) was found between files and the apical foraminal areas. The mean foraminal area was 3.8 times larger than the mean file area. The results of this study suggest that it would require 4 files of greater size beyond the one that bound to the foramen in order to allow a better relationship between files and apical openings of maxillary central incisors.

Uma vez que a instrumentação do forame apical tem sido sugerida para o controle de infecção do canal radicular, este estudo analisou a relação entre as limas que se ajustam no forame apical e a abertura foraminal em cinquenta incisivos centrais superiores. Após o preparo da câmara pulpar, foi feito o acesso radicular com as brocas LA Axxess #1 e 2 e limas K com a ponta cortada foram inseridas até que oferecessem a sensação tátil de ajuste no forame apical. Foram fixadas com cianoacrilato de metila e o conjunto dente-lima foi seccionado a 10 mm aquém do ápice. Foi feita a microscopia eletrônica de varredura e as áreas das limas e dos forames foram medidas por meio do Image Tool software. A análise estatística demonstrou diferença significante entre as áreas das limas e dos forames (p<0,0001). A média da área dos forames apicais foi 3,8 vezes maior que a das limas. Os resultados deste estudo sugerem que seriam necessários 4 instrumentos de calibre maior além do que se ajustou para que haja melhor relação entre as limas e as aberturas foraminais nos incisivos centrais superiores.

Visualizing biointerfaces in three dimensions: electron tomography of the bone-hydroxyapatite interface.

A positive interaction between human bone tissue and synthetics is crucial for the success of bone-regenerative materials. A greater understanding of the mechanisms governing bone-bonding is often gained via visualization of the bone-implant interface. Interfaces to bone have long been imaged with light, X-rays and electrons. Most of these techniques, however, only provide low-resolution or two-dimensional information. With the advances in modern day transmission electron microscopy, including new hardware and increased software computational speeds, the high-resolution visualization and analysis of three-dimensional structures is possible via electron tomography. We report, for the first time, a three-dimensional reconstruction of the interface between human bone and a hydroxyapatite implant using Z-contrast electron tomography. Viewing this structure in three dimensions enabled us to observe the nanometre differences in the orientation of hydroxyapatite crystals precipitated on the implant surface in vivo versus those in the collagen matrix of bone. Insight into the morphology of biointerfaces is considerably enhanced with three-dimensional techniques. In this regard, electron tomography may revolutionize the approach to high-resolution biointerface characterization.