Identification of Cacao Mild Mosaic Virus (CaMMV) and Cacao Yellow Vein-Banding Virus (CYVBV) in Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) Germplasm.

Cocoa, Theobroma cacao, is an important tropical perennial crop grown widely in the humid tropics. The exchange of cocoa germplasm between germplasm collections and breeding centres is vital for varietal development. Intermediate quarantine facilities, such as the International Cocoa Quarantine Centre, Reading UK (ICQC-R) play a vital role in ensuring the transfer of germplasm whilst minimising the risk of spreading pests and diseases. Current screening procedures combine visual inspection and molecular techniques, which are effective in detecting Cocoa swollen shoot virus (CSSV), a badnavirus, which causes severe losses but are restricted to West Africa. However, the detection of latent or mild virus infections that produce no visual symptoms has been a challenge. Recently two badnavirus species of cocoa producing mild symptoms, cacao mild mosaic virus (CaMMV) and cacao yellow vein-banding virus (CYVBV), have been sequenced. Here, we report new assays for the detection of these two species, for the first time in non-symptomatic accessions. Evolutionary and bioinformatic analyses of the viruses suggest their most recent source was from Trinidad, though there is historic evidence that these viruses may have their origin in South America and then become widespread globally over the last century. We also report a novel colorimetric Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for the detection of CYVBV. This simple and accurate method could be employed in field virus testing.

Complete sequence of an isolate of snake melon asteroid mosaic virus confirms that it is a member of a distinct sobemovirus species.

A virus tentatively named "snake melon asteroid mosaic virus" (SMAMV) was found in Sudan in cucurbit crops (10% of 600 samples) between 1992 and 2003. Biological and cytological properties as well as sequence data on a 345-nt fragment suggested that SMAMV was a member of the genus Sobemovirus. However, no complete sequence had been obtained, and the relationship between SMAMV and the acknowledged sobemoviruses had not been ascertained. In this work, we obtained the full-length sequence of an SMAMV isolate. The sequence was 4225 nt long, with a typical sobemovirus genetic organization. Sequence identity to other sobemoviruses was below 50%, both for the full-length genome and for individual proteins. These data confirm that SMAMV belongs to a novel sobemovirus species.

Detection and complete genome sequence of a divergent isolate of cucumber fruit mottle mosaic virus on Coccinia grandis in Sudan.

Cucurbit-infecting tobamoviruses known so far belong to six acknowledged or tentative species. Except for cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV), which is present worldwide, they are geographically restricted, mostly to Asia, and have not been observed in Africa so far. A tobamovirus isolate infecting a wild Coccinia grandis plant was collected in central Sudan in 2012. Its host range appeared to be mostly limited to cucurbits. Its full-length genome sequence was determined and found to be 85% identical to those of isolates of cucumber fruit mottle mosaic virus (CFMMV) described in Israel and Korea, whereas the aa sequence identity to CFMMV isolates was 92 to 95%, depending on the protein. Based on its biological and molecular properties, we suggest that the Sudanese isolate should be considered a divergent isolate of CFMMV. This is the first description of CFMMV in Africa. Its high divergence from isolates from Israel and Korea suggests a lack of recent exchanges between CFMMV from Sudan and the other known populations.

Production of a rabbit monoclonal antibody for highly sensitive detection of citrus mosaic virus and related viruses.

Citrus mosaic virus (CiMV) is one of the causal viruses of citrus mosaic disease in satsuma mandarins (Citrus unshiu). Prompt detection of trees infected with citrus mosaic disease is important for preventing the spread of this disease. Although rabbit monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) exhibit high specificity and affinity, their applicability is limited by technical difficulties associated with the hybridoma-based technology used for raising these mAbs. Here, we demonstrate a feasible CiMV detection system using a specific rabbit mAb against CiMV coat protein. A conserved peptide fragment of the small subunit of CiMV coat protein was designed and used to immunize rabbits. Antigen-specific antibody-producing cells were identified by the immunospot array assay on a chip method. After cloning of variable regions in heavy or light chain by RT-PCR from these cells, a gene set of 33 mAbs was constructed and these mAbs were produced using Expi293F cells. Screening with the AlphaScreen system revealed eight mAbs exhibiting strong interaction with the antigen peptide. From subsequent sequence analysis, they were grouped into three mAbs denoted as No. 4, 9, and 20. Surface plasmon resonance analysis demonstrated that the affinity of these mAbs for the antigen peptide ranged from 8.7 × 10-10 to 5.5 × 10-11 M. In addition to CiMV, mAb No. 9 and 20 could detect CiMV-related viruses in leaf extracts by ELISA. Further, mAb No. 20 showed a high sensitivity to CiMV and CiMV-related viruses, simply by dot blot analysis. The anti-CiMV rabbit mAbs obtained in this study are envisioned to be extremely useful for practical applications of CiMV detection, such as in a virus detection kit.

An isothermal based recombinase polymerase amplification assay for rapid, sensitive and robust indexing of citrus yellow mosaic virus.

Management of viral diseases relies on definite and sensitive detection methods. Citrus yellow mosaic virus (CYMV), a double stranded DNA virus of the genus Badnavirus, causes yellow mosaic disease in citrus plants. CYMV is transmitted through budwood and requires a robust and simplified indexing protocol for budwood certification programme. The present study reports development and standardization of an isothermal based recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) assay for a sensitive, rapid, easy, and cost-effective method for detection and diagnosis of CYMV. Two different oligonucleotide primer sets were designed from ORF III (coding for polyprotein) and ORF II (coding for virion associated protein) regions of CYMV to perform amplification assays. Comparative evaluation of RPA, PCR and immuno-capture recombinase polymerase amplification (IC-RPA) based assays were done using purified DNA and plant crude sap. CYMV infection was efficiently detected from the crude sap in RPA and IC-RPA assays. The primer set used in RPA was specific and did not show any cross-amplification with banana streak MY virus (BSMYV), another Badnavirus species. The results from the present study indicated that RPA assay can be used easily in routine indexing of citrus planting material. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on development of a rapid and simplified isothermal detection assay for CYMV and can be utilized as an effective technique in quarantine and budwood certification process.

Simultaneous detection of wheat dwarf virus, northern cereal mosaic virus, barley yellow striate mosaic virus and rice black-streaked dwarf virus in wheat by multiplex RT-PCR.

Wheat dwarf virus (WDV), barley yellow striate mosaic virus (BYSMV), rice black-streaked dwarf virus (RBSDV) and northern cereal mosaic virus (NCMV) are four viruses infecting wheat and causing similar symptoms. In this paper, a multiplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (m-RT-PCR) method has been developed for the simultaneous detection and discrimination of these viruses. The protocol uses specific primer set for each virus and produces four distinct fragments (273, 565, 783 and 1296bp), detecting the presence of RBSDV, BYSMV, WDV and NCMV, respectively. Annealing temperature, concentrations of dNTP, Taq polymerase and Mg2+ were optimized for the m-RT-PCR. The detection limit of the assay was up to 10-2 dilution. The amplification specificity of these primers was tested against a range of field samples from different regions of China, where RBSDV, BYSMV, WDV have been detected. This study fulfills the need for a rapid and specific wheat virus detection that also has the potential for investigating the epidemiology of these new viral diseases.

Development of reliable detection assays for blueberry mosaic- and blackberry vein banding- associated viruses based on their population structures.

Blueberry mosaic associated virus (BlMaV), the presumed causal agent of the homonymous disease and blackberry vein banding associated virus (BVBaV), a component of the blackberry yellow vein disease complex, are recently characterized RNA viruses. There is a need for efficient and sensitive detection protocols for the two viruses, not only for screening during the nursery propagation process but also in commercial fields to better understand virus epidemiology and minimize disease spread. RNA viruses display significant nucleotide variation forming quasi-species. Therefore, sequence-based detection methodologies, even though sensitive, may lead to false negative results. For this reason, information on the genetic diversity of virus populations is essential to develop diagnostic assays that have the potential to detect all variants. Detection assays for BlMaV and BVBaV were developed based on existing genetic diversity data and were validated by screening samples from different geographical areas in the United States. These detection tests provide sensitivity and specificity and will serve as the protocols of choice for virus screening in Vaccinium and Rubus certification programs in the United States and elsewhere. Given the increasing global trade of both blueberry and blackberry these tests will be valuable in avoiding virus introductions to new areas.

The Barley stripe mosaic virus γb protein promotes chloroplast-targeted replication by enhancing unwinding of RNA duplexes.

RNA viruses encode various RNA binding proteins that function in many steps of viral infection cycles. These proteins function as RNA helicases, methyltransferases, RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, RNA silencing suppressors, RNA chaperones, movement proteins, and so on. Although many of the proteins bind the viral RNA genome during different stages of infection, our knowledge about the coordination of their functions is limited. In this study, we describe a novel role for the Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) γb as an enhancer of αa RNA helicase activity, and we show that the γb protein is recruited by the αa viral replication protein to chloroplast membrane sites of BSMV replication. Mutagenesis or deletion of γb from BSMV resulted in reduced positive strand (+) RNAα accumulation, but γb mutations abolishing viral suppressor of RNA silencing (VSR) activity did not completely eliminate genomic RNA replication. In addition, cis- or trans-expression of the Tomato bushy stunt virus p19 VSR protein failed to complement the γb replication functions, indicating that the direct involvement of γb in BSMV RNA replication is independent of VSR functions. These data support a model whereby two BSMV-encoded RNA-binding proteins act coordinately to regulate viral genome replication and provide new insights into strategies whereby double-stranded viral RNA unwinding is regulated, as well as formation of viral replication complexes.

Characterization of a new carmovirus isolated from an Adonis plant.

An isometric virus was isolated from a cultivated Adonis plant (A. ramosa). The purified virus particle is 28 nm in diameter and is composed of a single coat protein and a single RNA genome of 3,991 nucleotides. Sequence analysis showed that the virus is closely related to carnation mottle virus. The virus was used to mechanically infect healthy A. ramosa plants, resulting in mosaic and leaf curl symptoms; however, attempts to inoculate carnation plants did not result in infection. We propose the virus as a new carmovirus and have named it adonis mosaic virus (AdMV).

Complete genome sequences of two highly divergent Japanese isolates of Plantago asiatica mosaic virus.

Plantago asiatica mosaic virus (PlAMV) is a member of the genus Potexvirus and has an exceptionally wide host range. It causes severe damage to lilies. Here we report on the complete nucleotide sequences of two new Japanese PlAMV isolates, one from the eudicot weed Viola grypoceras (PlAMV-Vi), and the other from the eudicot shrub Nandina domestica Thunb. (PlAMV-NJ). Their genomes contain five open reading frames (ORFs), which is characteristic of potexviruses. Surprisingly, the isolates showed only 76.0-78.0 % sequence identity with each other and with other PlAMV isolates, including isolates from Japanese lily and American nandina. Amino acid alignments of the replicase coding region encoded by ORF1 showed that the regions between the methyltransferase and helicase domains were less conserved than other regions, with several insertions and/or deletions. Phylogenetic analyses of the full-length nucleotide sequences revealed a moderate correlation between phylogenetic clustering and the original host plants of the PlAMV isolates. This study revealed the presence of two highly divergent PlAMV isolates in Japan.

Biological and molecular characterization of a putative new potexvirus infecting Senna occidentalis.

In this work, we report the complete genome sequence of, production of polyclonal antibodies against, and development of biological assays for a putative new potexvirus, named senna mosaic virus (SenMV), found infecting Senna occidentalis in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The complete genome sequence of SenMV comprises 6775 nucleotides excluding the poly(A) tail. The genome organization is similar to those of other potexviruses, with five open reading frames coding for RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), the triple gene block (TGB 1, 2, and 3) proteins, and coat protein (CP). The virus was transmitted to S. occidentalis by mechanical inoculation and trimming scissors, but not by seeds.

Development of a lateral-flow assay (LFA) for rapid detection of Soybean mosaic virus.

Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) is the most common virus in soybean and poses a serious threat to crop production and germplasm recession in many countries worldwide. In this study, a highly practical and rapid lateral-flow assay (LFA) was developed for the detection of SMV. The SMV coat protein (CP) was prokaryotically expressed and purified to immunize mice. After generation of hybridoma cell lines, four anti-SMV monoclonal antibodies were selected. The LFA-strip was then assembled using a double-antibody sandwich strategy. When the SMV-infected leaf sample was assayed using the assembled LFA-strip, the positive pink color appeared in the test line within 5-10min. The strip only gave positive results with SMV and not other viruses tested and could be used to detect 800 fold dilutions of infected leaf samples. The LFA could be used to detect SMV in infected leaf tissue as well as soybean seeds. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the development of a LFA for the detection of SMV. The practical, rapid and specific assay that was developed in this study can be widely applied to the diagnosis and surveillance of SMV in the laboratory and the field.

A dCAPS assay detects and characterizes BaYMV according to its ability to overcome rym4-mediated resistance.

Winter barley is subjected to severe yield losses due to the yellow mosaic virus disease. Two soil borne bymoviruses, BaYMV (Barley yellow mosaic virus) and BaMMV (Barley mild mosaic virus) are responsible for this disease in Europe. As breeding resistant cultivars is the only control method against the disease, barley varieties carrying the recessive resistance rym4 were introduced. However, a new pathotype BaYMV-2 overcoming rym4 resistance appeared in the late 1980s. In France, little is known about BaYMV-2 and the common BaYMV (BaYMV-1) distribution, but the increase of the disease occurrence is becoming a concern. There is currently no valid molecular tool for BaYMV-1 and BaYMV-2 differentiation; thus the development of a dCAPS (derived Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Sequences) tool was investigated. BaYMV-1 and BaYMV-2 diversity was first estimated by Sanger sequencing. The Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) previously described as providing the ability to overcome rym4-mediated resistance was targeted. A dCAPS tool was developed to digest specifically BaYMV-1. This assay was successfully tested with seventy naturally infected samples. This new tool will be useful to investigate BaYMV-1 and 2 distributions.

Molecular Approach Coupled with Biochemical Attributes to Elucidate the Presence of DYMV in Leaf Samples of Lablab purpureus. L Genotypes.

A laboratory study was delineated to ascertain the impact and the extent of Dolichos yellow mosaic virus (DYMV) on biochemical constituents and various enzyme levels in the leaves of hyacinth bean. DYMV-infected leaves of all the genotypes used in the study revealed significant and consistent changes in activities of CAT, APX, PPO, DHAR, and MDHAR paralleled with a compelling hike in proline levels. Unlike that in non-infected leaves of the genotypes VRSEM-301 and VRSEM-749, VRSEM-894 and VRSEM-855, the enzyme level did not alter much which extended equally with increased phenolics, suggesting a well-coordinated generation of free radicals thereby suppressing oxidative stress in the latter. The genotypes were also evaluated at molecular level for elucidating the presence of the virus by using five sets of primer pairs. Two primers viz., DAC1 and DAC2 witnessed the presence of the virus in both non-infected and infected leaves. The difference in the appearance and/or disappearance of bands according to non-infected to infect reverberates the variation between genotypes in defense against infection.

Sequence diversity of wheat mosaic virus isolates.

Wheat mosaic virus (WMoV), transmitted by eriophyid wheat curl mites (Aceria tosichella) is the causal agent of High Plains disease in wheat and maize. WMoV and other members of the genus Emaravirus evaded thorough molecular characterization for many years due to the experimental challenges of mite transmission and manipulating multisegmented negative sense RNA genomes. Recently, the complete genome sequence of a Nebraska isolate of WMoV revealed eight segments, plus a variant sequence of the nucleocapsid protein-encoding segment. Here, near-complete and partial consensus sequences of five more WMoV isolates are reported and compared to the Nebraska isolate: an Ohio maize isolate (GG1), a Kansas barley isolate (KS7), and three Ohio wheat isolates (H1, K1, W1). Results show two distinct groups of WMoV isolates: Ohio wheat isolate RNA segments had 84% or lower nucleotide sequence identity to the NE isolate, whereas GG1 and KS7 had 98% or higher nucleotide sequence identity to the NE isolate. Knowledge of the sequence variability of WMoV isolates is a step toward understanding virus biology, and potentially explaining observed biological variation.

A One-Step Real-Time RT-PCR Assay for the Detection and Quantitation of Sugarcane Streak Mosaic Virus.

Sugarcane mosaic disease is caused by the Sugarcane streak mosaic virus (SCSMV; genus Poacevirus, family Potyviridae) which is common in some Asian countries. Here, we established a protocol of a one-step real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (real-time qRT-PCR) using the TaqMan probe for the detection of SCSMV in sugarcane. Primers and probes were designed within the conserved region of the SCSMV coat protein (CP) gene sequences. Standard single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) generated by PCR-based gene transcripts of recombinant pGEM-CP plasmid in vitro and total RNA extracted from SCSMV-infected sugarcane were used as templates of qRT-PCR. We further performed a sensitivity assay to show that the detection limit of the assay was 100 copies of ssRNA and 2 pg of total RNA with good reproducibility. The values obtained were approximately 100-fold more sensitive than those of the conventional RT-PCR. A higher incidence (68.6%) of SCSMV infection was detected by qRT-PCR than that (48.6%) with conventional RT-PCR in samples showing mosaic symptoms. SCSMV-free samples were verified by infection with Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) or Sorghum mosaic virus (SrMV) or a combination of both. The developed qRT-PCR assay may become an alternative molecular tool for an economical, rapid, and efficient detection and quantification of SCSMV.

Analysis of genome comparison of two Indian isolates of Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus from India.

The complete sequence of two Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (CABMV) isolates (RR3 and RR4) from India was determined. Phylogenetic analysis showed that both isolates showed different closeness with other isolates of CABMV. CABMV-RR3 showed maximum identity of 99 % with CABMV-BR1 from Brazil at nucleotide and protein levels, whereas CABMV-RR4 showed identity of 73 and 95 % with CABMV-Z isolate from Zimbabwe at nucleotide and protein levels respectively. Similarity identity matrix revealed 69 % identity at nucleotide level and 91 % at protein level with each other. Recombination breakpoint detection showed that CABMV-MG-Avr from Brazil and CABMV-Z from Zimbabwe act as major parents in our isolates RR3 and RR4, respectively.

Simultaneous detection of Tomato spotted wilt virus, Dahlia mosaic virus and Chrysanthemum stunt viroid by multiplex RT-PCR in dahlias and their distribution in Japanese dahlias.

UNLABELLED: Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), Dahlia mosaic virus (DMV) and Chrysanthemum stunt viroid (CSVd) are economically important viruses and viroid that infect cultivated dahlias. Prior to this investigation, no multiplex RT-PCR assay for the detection of dahlia virus and viroid infections existed. In this study, we report the development of a multiplex RT-PCR that simultaneously detects TSWV, DMV and CSVd infections in dahlias. In addition, a simple RT-PCR method that does not require RNA extraction, microtissue direct RT-PCR, could be used to prepare samples for analysis by this multiplex RT-PCR. A field survey validated our results, indicating that TSWV was the dominant virus found in the Kansai region, DMV in the Tohoku and Kyushu regions, and CSVd in the Hokkaido region. This method represents a rapid, sensitive and cost effective approach to diagnose viral infections in dahlias. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The multiplex RT-PCR assay described in this study is the first report of simultaneous detection of virus and viroid in dahlia. This method represents a rapid, sensitive and cost effective approach to diagnose viral infections in dahlias. A field survey validated our results, indicating that TSWV was the dominant virus found in the Kansai region, DMV in the Tohoku and Kyushu regions and CSVd in the Hokkaido region.

Co-digestion of tobacco waste with different agricultural biomass feedstocks and the inhibition of tobacco viruses by anaerobic digestion.

Tobacco is widely planted across the world especially in China, which means that a large amount of tobacco waste needs to be treated. This study investigated the biogas fermentation of tobacco stalks co-digested with different biomass feedstocks and the inactivation of Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) by anaerobic digestion. Results showed that the maximum methane yield of tobacco stalks at 35 °C was 0.163 m(3) CH4 ⋅ kg VS(-1), which was from the co-digestion of tobacco stalks, wheat stalks and pig manure. The largest VS removal rate of tobacco stalks was 59.10%. Proven by indicator paper stripe, half-leaf lesion and RT-PCR, CMV could be inactivated by mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic digestion, whereas TMV could be only inactivated by thermophilic anaerobic digestion over 20 days. These results suggested that using tobacco stalks as feedstock for anaerobic digestion and applying the digested residue and slurry to Solanaceae crop land are feasible.

Molecular and Biological Characterization of Distinct Strains of Jatropha mosaic virus from the Dominican Republic Reveal a Potential to Infect Crop Plants.

In the Dominican Republic (DO), jatropha plants with yellow mosaic symptoms are commonly observed in and around fields of various crop plants. Complete nucleotide sequences of DNA-A and DNA-B components of four bipartite begomovirus isolates associated with symptomatic jatropha plants collected from three geographical locations in the DO were determined. Sequence comparisons revealed highest identities (91 to 92%) with the DNA-A component of an isolate of Jatropha mosaic virus (JMV) from Jamaica, indicating that the bipartite begomovirus isolates from the DO are strains of JMV. When introduced into jatropha seedlings by particle bombardment, the cloned components of the JMV strains from the DO induced stunting and yellow mosaic, indistinguishable from symptoms observed in the field, thereby fulfilling Koch's postulates for the disease. The JMV strains also induced disease symptoms in Nicotiana benthamiana, tobacco, and several cultivars of common bean from the Andean gene pool, including one locally grown in the DO. Asymmetry in the infectivity and symptomatology of pseudorecombinants provided further support for the strain designation of the JMV isolates from the DO. Thus, JMV in the DO is a complex of genetically distinct strains that have undergone local evolution and have the potential to cause disease in crop plants.