The Intramuscular Circulation Is Affected by Neck and Shoulder Pain.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of neck and shoulder pain (NSP) and the position of the head and neck on the intramuscular circulation of the cervical muscles such as the trapezius and levator scapulae muscles in young females. Ten NSP subjects (mean age: 20.9 ± 0.5 years) and ten non-NSP subjects (mean age: 20.6 ± 0.7 years) were recruited to this study. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) was used to non-invasively measure total haemoglobin (Total-Hb), oxygenated haemoglobin (Oxy-Hb), and deoxygenated haemoglobin (Deoxy-Hb) of the trapezius and levator scapulae muscles. The measurements of Total-Hb, Oxy-Hb, and Deoxy-Hb were taken in the neutral position, immediately after the maximally flexed (extended) position, and after 30 s in the maximally flexed (extended) position. In flexion, no significant main effect or interaction was observed with Total-Hb and Oxy-Hb. A significant interaction was observed with Deoxy-Hb (p < 0.01). There was no significant difference in the changes over time in the NSP group (p = 0.91). However, in the non-NSP group, a significant increase was noted at the neutral position to immediately after the maximally flexed position (p < 0.01) and at the end of maintaining the maximally flexed position (p < 0.01). In extension, no significant main effect or interaction was observed with Total-Hb and Oxy-Hb. A significant interaction was observed with Deoxy-Hb (p < 0.01). In the NSP group, no significant difference was observed in the changes over time (p = 0.91). In the non-NSP group, however, a significant decrease was observed from the neutral position to immediately after the maximally extended position (p < 0.01). The results of this study indicate that maintaining either maximal cervical flexion or extension may affect venous blood flow on non-NSP group. However, no effect on NSP group was observed due to existing diminished intramuscular circulation.

An anomalous muscle clinging around the inferior belly of omohyoid muscle.

Sternohyoid, sternothyroid, omohyoid and thyrohyoid muscles belong to a group of muscles called infrahyoid muscles. A few variations of these muscles and additional muscles in this area have been reported. We report an anomalous muscle in this area. The anomalous muscle took its origin from the posterior surface of the manubrium sterni and was inserted to the posterior surface of the clavicle. This muscle was 6 cm long and interestingly, it made a loop, which was clinging on to the inferior belly of omohyoid posteriorly, superiorly and anteriorly. The muscle was situated between the lower end of sternocleidomastoid and the carotid sheath. It was supplied by ansa cervicalis. Knowledge of this muscle could be useful in surgeries like removal of cervical rib, and cervical lymph node clearance. Hypertrophy of this muscle might compress the internal jugular vein.

The sternohyoid muscle flap for new dynamic facial reanimation technique: Anatomical study and clinical results.

BACKGROUND: Long-term facial nerve palsy has a highly negative impact on patients' quality of life. In 2016, Alam reported one case of facial reanimation with the sternohyoid muscle after publishing a preclinical study in 2013. Despite the potentially ideal characteristics of this muscle for reanimation of facial palsy, this technique is still not widely used. The objective of our description of cases was to present the clinical results obtained with the surgical procedure and the study on cadavers to confirm the anatomical findings. METHODS: This work describes the anatomical study of the vascular and nervous pedicle of the sternohyoid muscle compared with clinical results from a series of patients with long-term facial paralysis who underwent facial reanimation between June 2016 and September 2019, through the insertion of the sternohyoid muscle into the masseteric nerve. RESULTS: The anatomical study was conducted in eight human hemi-necks. In five cases (62%), the vascular pedicle was provided by the superior thyroid artery, and the entrance of the ansa cervicalis to the muscle was constant 1.8 cm from the distal insertion. This series included ten patients who underwent the surgery technique of facial reanimation using the sternohyoid muscle, with a 90% (n = 9) of reinnervation; 100% (n = 10) of flaps were viable, and none of the patients showed complications in the donor area. CONCLUSIONS: The sternohyoid muscle showed itself as a reliable muscle as a free flap in facial reanimation, and alternative to the gracilis flap. The surgical technique was safe, without any complications, with excellent excursion, recovery, and aesthetic results.

Morphological characteristics of the posterior neck muscles and anatomical landmarks for botulinum toxin injections.

PURPOSE: Cervical dystonia is a common movement disorder for which botulinum toxin (BoNT) is the first choice treatment. Injecting the specific neck muscles can be challenging because of their thin morphology and deep locations. We, therefore, designed a study to investigate the locations of the posterior neck muscles to help the physician predict the locations of the targeted neck muscles and to protect the vertebral vessels from injury during deep injections. METHODS: The posterior neck region was divided into four quadrants by imaginary lines passing vertically and transversely through the spinous process of C2 vertebra (C2sp). The thicknesses and depth of the posterior neck muscles were measured in ten formaldehyde-fixed adult male cadavers. These muscles were located and a projection of them was drawn on the neck. Using the measurements, colored latex in place of BoNT was injected into them in one cadaver. The cadaver was dissected to investigate whether the muscles were colored. RESULTS: 2 cm above the C2sp, trapezius, splenius capitis (SPC) and semispinalis capitis (SSC) were colored at depths of 10.70 mm, 11.88 mm and 15.91 mm, respectively. 2 cm below the C2sp, the trapezius, SPC and SSC were colored at depths of 20.89 mm, 23.25 mm and 27.63 mm, respectively. The posterior neck muscles were had taken up their assigned colors when they were injected according to the results obtained in this study. The vertebral vessels were not colored. CONCLUSIONS: Although BoNT injection into the posterior neck muscles is challenging, we think that it can be practically and safely applied using the measurements obtained in this study.

Clinical Implications of the Submental and Sublingual Arteries in Relation to the Mylohyoid Boutonnière.

OBJECTIVE: Mylohyoid musculature may be included in the submental artery flap to protect perforators. However, blood vessels may pass through the mylohyoid muscle and therefore cause bleeding and risk to pedicle or perforator injury when a mylohyoid-containing flap is lifted. The objectives of this study were to identify the prevalence of the submental and sublingual arteries that traverse the mylohyoid and to assess relationships between vasculature transmitted through mylohyoid muscles and mylohyoid boutonnières. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional human cadaveric study. SETTING: The West Virginia University School of Medicine human gross anatomic laboratories. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A total of 43 intact mylohyoid muscles from 22 cadavers were dissected. The prevalence of submental vasculature perforating the mylohyoid was recorded in addition to the prevalence and contents of mylohyoid boutonnières. RESULTS: Of 43 mylohyoid muscles, 21 (48.8%) transmitted the submental or sublingual arteries, and 30 (69.1%) possessed boutonnières. One muscle had 2 boutonnières. Of 31 mylohyoid boutonnières, 21 transmitted blood vessels (67.7%). Specifically, 9 transmitted an artery and a vein (29.0%), and 12 transmitted an artery (38.7%). Ten boutonnières (32.3%) were exclusively occupied by fascia. CONCLUSION: This report identifies the importance of identifying and carefully ligating branches of the submental artery that pierce the mylohyoid during elevation of the submental island flap. This report also identifies that a boutonnière is often present where a submental or sublingual artery is traversing the mylohyoid to supply sublingual glands, tongue, and anterior mandible.

Unusual branch of the lingual artery supplies the infrahyoid muscles.

Infrahyoid muscles are usually supplied by muscular arteries, originating from the superior and inferior thyroid artery and the internal thoracic artery. In this work, we reported a unilateral anatomical variation of the branching pattern of the lingual artery, which was observed during dissection studies at the University of Brescia. We found an accessory branch arising from the root of the lingual artery that run down medially and supplied the infrahyoid muscles. A similar case has not yet been reported in literature. Considering the current use of the infrahyoid muscles as pedicled myocutaneous flap for reconstructing surgical defects in the head and neck, this vascular variation appears interesting to be reported for appropriate clinical and surgical consideration.

Surgical anatomy of vascularized submental lymph node flap: Sharing arterial supply of lymph nodes with the skin and topographic relationship with anterior belly of digastric muscle.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Development of vascularized submental lymph node (VSLN) flap has encountered dilemmas; (a) whether to include skin paddle, (b) how to reduce the harvest area while gaining most lymph nodes. To answer, these structures were studied; submental perforator, lymph nodes in neck-level I and anterior belly of digastric muscle (ABDM). METHODS: Forty VSLN flaps were harvested from 23 cadavers. The lymph nodes and arterial supply were studied macro- and microscopically. The nodes were classified by arterial supplies, location along the longitudinal axis and relationship with ABDM. RESULTS: VSLN flap had 4.4 lymph nodes by average (range 1-8) predominantly located in the posterior three-quarter of the flap. Half of the submental perforators were originated deep to ABDM. they circumvent the muscle, supplied much of the nodes in neck sublevel Ia before reaching the skin. While sublevel Ib located the most surgically accessible submental nodes. Most of their arterial supply was branched from submental perforator lateral to ABDM, not directly from the submental artery. CONCLUSION: The flap could be reduced to the posterior three-quarter of the original area. Skin paddle should be included to serve as an indirect lymph node monitor. If Ia lymph nodes are to be included, ABDM should be sacrified.

Anatomic study of the musculus longus capitis flap.

PURPOSE: To clearly delineate the anatomy of the musculus longus capitis, determine its clinical applications for reconstruction surgery, and provide a safer surgical method of developing the longus capitis muscle flap. METHODS: Anatomical investigations were performed in seven adult cadavers (five cadavers for gross anatomy and two for transparent specimen preparation) with respect to the location, morphology, arterial supply, and innervation of the musculus longus capitis, as well as its spatial relationship with the cervical sympathetic trunk, superior cervical ganglion, carotid sheath, and other surrounding structures. RESULTS: The musculus longus capitis is located anterior to the C1-6 vertebrae, segmentally supplied by branches of the ascending cervical artery, innervated by the C1-5 nerve, and spatially close to the cervical sympathetic trunk, superior cervical ganglion, and carotid sheath. These anatomic findings indicate that the development of a cranial or caudal pedicled longus capitis muscle flap is feasible. CONCLUSION: The musculus longus capitis can be developed into a cranial or caudal pedicled flap for repair of head and neck defects with negligible morbidity of the donor site.

A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Endoscopic-Assisted Versus Open Neck Tissue Expander Placement in Reconstruction of Post-Burn Facial Scar Deformities.

BACKGROUND: Tissue expansion has evolved reconstruction surgery by providing a great source of additional tissue for large skin defects. Nevertheless, wide application of tissue expander reconstruction is challenging due to high complication rates and uncertainty about final outcomes. Recently, endoscopy has shown promise in reconstructive surgeries using tissue expander placement. AIMS: This study aimed to compare outcomes between open and endoscopic-assisted neck tissue expander placement in reconstruction of post-burn facial scar deformities. METHODS: Through a randomized clinical trial, 63 patients with facial burn scars were assigned to an open group or endoscopic group for placement of 81 tissue expanders. The complication rate, operative time, length of hospital stay, and time to full expansion were compared between the two groups. RESULTS: Thirty-one patients were assigned to the open group and 32 patients to the endoscopic group. The average operative time was significantly reduced in the endoscopic group compared with the open group (42.2 ± 3.6, 56.5 ± 4.5 min, p < 0.05). The complication rate was significantly lower in the endoscopic group than the open group (6 vs. 16, p < 0.05). Hospital stay was also significantly diminished from 26.3 ± 7.7 h in open group to 7.4 ± 4.5 h in endoscopic group (p < 0.0001). There was a significant reduction in time to full expansion in the endoscopic group as compared with the open group (93.5 ± 10.2 vs. 112.1 ± 14.2 days, p = 0.002). CONCLUSION: Endoscopic neck tissue expander placement significantly reduced operative time, the postoperative complication rate, length of hospital stay, and time to achieve full expansion and allowed early initiation of expansion and remote placement of the port in relation to the expander pocket. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE I: This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .

Anomalous course of the external carotid artery.

The course and the branching patterns of the external carotid artery were investigated macroscopically in a total of 550 bodies or 1100 head sides of Japanese subjects, donated for student dissection at Kumamoto University from 1994 to 2014. With the exception of 14 head sides, the external carotid arteries running between the posterior belly of the digastric and stylohyoid muscles were found in 42 (3.87 %) out of 1086 head sides. Strictly speaking, they passed between the stylohyoid muscle and the stylohyoid branch of the facial nerve in 23 out of these 42 head sides. In the remaining 19 instances, the stylohyoid branch of the facial nerve was cut and its relationship to the external carotid artery was not clear. The external carotid artery running lateral to the intact stylohyoid branch of the facial nerve, medial to the digastric muscle was not found. The external carotid arteries running lateral to the digastric muscle were found in 4 (0.37 %) out of 1086 head sides. As a result, it is proposed that plural, potential courses of the external carotid artery originally exist and that some parts of such potential courses remain as branches of the external carotid artery in the usual instance, while the anomalous courses of the external carotid artery are induced mainly by anastomosis between the muscular branches supplying the wall of the head and neck in contrast to the usual external carotid artery induced mainly by the branches originally supplying the pharynx.

Region-oriented and staged treatment strategy in reconstruction of severe cervical contracture.

INTRODUCTION: Severe cervical contracture after burns causes obvious impairment of neck movement and the aesthetic silhouette. Although various surgical techniques for treatment have been described, there is not a definitive strategy to guide treatment. Over the past 6 years, we have been utilizing a region-oriented and staged treatment strategy to guide reconstruction of severe cervical contracture. Satisfactory results have been achieved with this strategy. METHODS: The first stage of treatment focuses on the anterior cervical region and submental region. Procedures include cicatrix resection, contracture release, division and elevation of the platysma to form two platysma flaps, and skin grafting. Three to six months later, the second stage treatment is performed, which localize to the mental region. This includes scar resection, correction of the lower lip eversion, and reconstruction with free (para)scapular skin flap. Three subtypes of cervicomental angle that we proposed were measured as quantitative tool for evaluation of the reconstruction. RESULTS: 24 patients who completed the treatment were reviewed. By the 3rd postoperative month, their CM angles changed significantly: the soft tissue CM angle was reduced from 135.0° ± 17.3° to 111.1° ± 11.3°, the osseous CM angle increased from 67.1° ± 9.0° to 90.5° ± 11.6° and the dynamic CM angle increased from 21.9° ± 8.7° to 67.4° ± 13.1°. 22 in 24 (91.7%) of these patients gained notable improvement of cervical motion and aesthetic contour. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the region-oriented and staged treatment strategy can achieve satisfactory functional and aesthetic results, combining usage of both skin graft and skin flap while minimizing the donor site morbidity.

Empty fenestration of the internal jugular vein: a rare phenomenon.

Though there are common variations of the internal jugular vein (IJV), fenestrations are extremely rare. The lateral branch of the accessory nerve classically goes through the fenestration. We report a case of an empty fenestration of the IJV that was discovered during clearance of cervical lymph nodes. Original operative and radiographic images are shown.

The platysma myocutaneous flap.

Reconstructing defects of the oral mucosa or skin of the lower one-third of the face can be accomplished by a variety of techniques. This article presents two versions of the platysma myocutaneous flap, which is a reliable, axial pattern, pedicled flap capable of providing excellent one-stage reconstruction of such defects. As discussed herein, the superiorly based and posteriorly based versions of the flap have wide application in the oral and facial region. Also provided is a review of other uses of this flap in head and neck surgery.

Duplication of the lower third of the internal jugular vein--case report and surgical implications.

Duplication of the internal jugular vein is rare with a reported incidence of 0.4%. Most are located in the upper third and are almost always unilateral, duplication of the lower third is less common. In the case presented the vein divided above the omohyoid muscle with one branch passing superficial and the other deep to the muscle. Failure to recognise this anomaly could result in iatrogenic damage to the superficial branch in particular, with brisk and unexpected haemorrhage during neck dissection.

Submental artery island flap in intraoral reconstruction: a review.

BACKGROUND: The submental flap was first introduced 20 years ago (1993). Advances in techniques and new findings from anatomic studies expanded the indications and improved the flap characteristics. Indications, limitation, and all possible variants of this flap are discussed comprehensively in this article. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A literature review was performed. We paid attention to the anatomy of submental region, and especially to submental artery and vein, muscles and lymphatics. Surgical techniques for each possible variant of this flap and examples of each situation are presented. Indications of submental flap for facial, oesophageal, pharyngeal, laryngeal, and oral cavity reconstruction were assessed. RESULTS: Ninety studies meeting the inclusion criteria were reviewed. Classification of the submental flap based on skin paddle composition and blood supply is presented. Major modifications such as pedicled, free, and perforator flaps are discussed comprehensively and minor variants of submental flap such as bipaddled, bipedicled, expanded, deepithelialized, and interposition submental flaps are discussed, briefly. A historical look at this topic is presented to show how and by whom advances in submental flap were done. CONCLUSION: The submental flap has a wide arc of rotation; it is easy to rise and has low donor site morbidity. It is a safe, simple, and predictable method for reconstruction of oral cavity.

Use of a folded reverse facial-submental artery submental island flap to reconstruct soft palate defects following cancer ablation.

INTRODUCTION: Although several techniques have been described for the repair of soft palate defects, soft palate reconstruction remains challenging. This study was performed to evaluate swallowing and speech functions in patients undergoing placement of folded reverse facial-submental artery submental island flaps (FRFF) to reconstruct soft palate defects following cancer ablation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: FRFFs were designed for eight patients with soft palate defects resulting from soft palatal squamous cell carcinoma ablation. The clinical stages of tumours were I in two patients, II in four patients, and III in two patients. FRFFs were created to reconstruct soft palate defects. Swallowing and speech functions were evaluated 3 months postoperatively. RESULTS: One minor flap failure occurred, but all flaps survived. No donor-site problem occurred. Five patients managed ingestion of a solid diet, two managed a soft diet, and one remained on a liquid diet. Six patients achieved normal speech, one achieved intelligible speech, and one retained slurred speech. The patients were followed for 8-48 months; seven patients were living with no evidence of disease, and one was living with disease. CONCLUSIONS: The FRFF is reliable for soft palate defect reconstruction following cancer ablation and can achieve satisfactory swallowing and speech functions.

Reconstruction of complex oro-facial defects using the myocutaneous sub-mental artery flap.

Oro-facial defects require reconstruction that provides suitable colour match and texture. Moreover inner and outer cheek lining and bulk are key considerations. In cases of severe oro-facial infections concomitant mandibular abnormality, for example trismus, can mandate the need for tissue to obturate mandibular defects. We assessed the use of the myocutaneous sub-mental artery flap (MSA) in non-oncological patients with such defects. Twenty two consecutive patients were included in this case series. All patients were survivors of Cancrum Oris (NOMA). Demographic details, nutritional status and co-morbidities were recorded. Defects were classified according to the tissues destroyed; cheek, mandible, oral cavity, lip(s), nose and eye(s). Simultaneous procedures carried out were recorded. The surgical anatomy of the MSA is described. All patients had composite defects of the cheek and oral cavity plus another local anatomical structure. Adjunct procedures such as trismus release were carried out in 18/22 patients. Four patients required a return to theatre. There was no trismus recurrence observed. No flap losses were incurred. The MSA is a robust flap with minimal incidence of major complications. The MSA negates the need for microsurgical tissue transfer. Furthermore the MSA provides adequate bulk to obturate these defects. Future applications of the MSA may include complex oro-facial oncological defects.

Composition of the blood supply in the sublingual and submandibular spaces and its relationship to the lateral lingual foramen of the mandible.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this research was to contribute to minimizing arterial disruption during mandibular surgical procedures by clarifying the course of the arteries supplying the sublingual and submental regions. STUDY DESIGN: Heads of 75 human cadavers were dissected to identify the arterial supply of the sublingual and submental regions. Computed tomography scans were performed to visualize the lateral lingual foramina of the mandibles. RESULTS: The facial artery was found to contribute to the composition of almost half of the sublingual arteries studied. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the arterial supply to an incisor tooth is often from the submental artery. CONCLUSIONS: Our data provide important information for coping with bleeding or hematoma occurring during surgical procedures in the mandibular region.

Use of the versatile sternocleidomastoid flap in oral and maxillofacial surgery: our experience.

Our aim was to evaluate the reliability of sternocleidomastoid (SCM) flaps in the reconstruction of defects after oral and maxillofacial resections, and summarise the ways in which morbidity can be reduced. We retrospectively enrolled 65 patients who had malignant tumours resected, and assessed the postoperative viability of the SCM flap. All complications were recorded during a follow up period of 1-64 months. We also investigated the relation between recurrence in regional lymph nodes and their preoperative histological state. The conventional SCM flap, the split SCM flap with only the sternal head, and the SCM flap with a half-thickness clavicular graft, were used to repair different defects. No flaps necrosed completely, and in only 5 cases was there partial loss of the skin paddle. The skin paddle avulsed in 2 cases 2 patients developed wound infections. Only 9 patients developed complications (14%, 9/65). Use of the split SCM flap overcomes the problem of bulk. The combination of the SCM flap and clavicular bone enables early dental implantation. The SCM flap is convenient, reliable, and technically easy for the reconstruction of intraoral or mandibular tissue loss. Preservation of the branch of the superior thyroid artery and precise surgical technique contribute to a higher success rate.

Anatomical study and modified incision of the infrahyoid myocutaneous flap.

Skin paddle necrosis and neck function damage, particularly rotation, are two problems associated with the infrahyoid myocutaneous flap clinical application. The aim of this study was to investigate vessel supply and drainage of the skin paddle and to report our modified flap incision technique. In this work, we conducted a cadaveric study and reviewed our experience with the modified incision and describe the surgical procedure. We confirmed the platysma muscle branch feeds the skin paddle overlying the infrahyoid myocutaneous flap. The length between the platysma muscle branch entry point and its originating point measured 3.38 (min 2.51, max 4.52) cm. The flap has two drainage systems. The skin paddle of the flap was drained by the anterior jugular vein and external jugular vein, respectively, or both. The infrahyoid muscles were drained by the superior thyroid vein. In the early four cases, where the platysma muscle branch was not protected, skin paddle necrosis appeared in two cases. In the later seven cases, which involved preservation of the platysma muscle branch, all flaps successfully survived. Patients in whom a modified incision was used all achieved both satisfactory rehabilitation of neck function and an adequate esthetic result. We conclude that the necrosis rate of the skin paddle of the flap can be reduced by carefully protecting its supply and drainage vessels. The modified incision can improve neck function postoperatively.