Radioiodination of Pimonidazole as a Novel Theranostic Hypoxia Probe.

BACKGROUND: Tumors are defined as abnormal tissue masses, and one of the most important factors leading to the growth of these abnormal tissue masses is Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, which stimulates angiogenesis by releasing cells under hypoxic conditions. Hypoxia has a vital role in cancer therapy, thus it is important to monitor hypoxia. The hypoxia marker Pimonidazole (PIM) is a candidate biomarker of cancer aggressiveness. OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to perform radioiodination of PIM with Iodine-131 (131I) to join a theranostic approach. For this purpose, PIM was derived as PIM-TOS to be able to be radioiodinated. METHODS: PIM was derived via a tosylation reaction. Derivatization product (PIM-TOS) was radioiodinated by using iodogen method and was analyzed by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Thin layer radiochromatography was utilized for its quality control studies. RESULTS: PIM was derived successfully after the tosylation reaction. The radioiodination yield of PIM-TOS was over 85%. CONCLUSION: In the current study, radioiodination potential of PIM with 131I, as a potential theranostic hypoxia agent was investigated. Further experimental studies should be performed for developing a novel hypoxia probe including theranostics approaches.

A study of photostability and compatibility of the anti-chagas drug Benznidazole with pharmaceutics excipients.

UNLABELLED: Abstract Context: Benznidazole (BNZ) is an antiparasitic with trypanocidal properties for the etiological treatment of Chagas disease since 1973. Monitoring the stability of this drug is one of the most effective methods of assessment, forecasting and prevention of problems related to quality product. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the direct and indirect photodegradation of BNZ and to evaluate the interference of the excipients used in the forms dosage solid as well as to shed light on the chemical structure of the degradation products obtained. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To perform this work we adopted the "ICH Harmonised Tripartite Guideline: Photostability Testing of New Drug Substances and Products Q1B" (Guideline Q1B). We used benzonidazole (BNZ) (N-benzil-2-(2-nitroimidazol-1-il) acetamide) (LAFEPE®, Recife, Brazil) and various excipients; beyond high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), infrared spectroscopy (IR) and mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (MS/MS). The indirect photodegradation of BNZ was carried out using physical mixtures with 13 pharmaceutical excipients commonly used in the preparation of solid dosage forms. RESULTS: HPLC and MS/MS techniques were selected for the identification of two photoproducts (PPs) and photoreactions found in direct and indirect tests with the microcrystalline cellulose, considered a critical excipient. DISCUSSION: Despite variations in the infrared spectrometry, differential scanning calorimetry and differential thermogravimetry curves, these techniques are not conclusive since the study of photodegradation of the drug caused decay of 30%, according to the ICH. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that BNZ only undergoes direct photodegradation, since no new PPs were found for a combination of the drug and excipients.

Photodegradation of the antibiotics nitroimidazoles in aqueous solution by ultraviolet radiation.

The objective of this study was to analyze the efficacy of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the direct photodegradation of nitroimidazoles. For this purpose, i) a kinetic study was performed, determining the quantum yield of the process; and ii) the influence of the different operational variables was analyzed (initial concentration of antibiotic, pH, presence of natural organic matter compounds, and chemical composition of water), and the time course of total organic carbon (TOC) concentration and toxicity during nitroimidazole photodegradation was studied. The very low quantum yields obtained for the four nitroimidazoles are responsible for the low efficacy of the quantum process during direct photon absorption in nitroimidazole phototransformation. The R(254) values obtained show that the dose habitually used for water disinfection is not sufficient to remove this type of pharmaceutical; therefore, higher doses of UV irradiation or longer exposure times are required for their removal. The time course of TOC and toxicity during direct photodegradation (in both ultrapure and real water) shows that oxidation by-products are not oxidized to CO(2) to the desired extent, generating oxidation by-products that are more toxic than the initial product. The concentration of nitroimidazoles has a major effect on their photodegradation rate. The study of the influence of pH on the values of parameters ɛ (molar absorption coefficient) and k'(E) (photodegradation rate constant) showed no general trend in the behavior of nitroimidazoles as a function of the solution pH. The components of natural organic matter, gallic acid (GAL), tannic acid (TAN) and humic acid (HUM), may act as promoters and/or inhibitors of OH· radicals via photoproduction of H(2)O(2). The effect of GAL on the metronidazole (MNZ) degradation rate markedly differed from that of TAN or HUM, with a higher rate at low GAL concentrations. Differences in MNZ degradation rate among waters with different chemical composition are not very marked, although the rate is slightly lower in wastewaters, mainly due to the UV radiation filter effect of this type of water.

Gamma irradiation of pharmaceutical compounds, nitroimidazoles, as a new alternative for water treatment.

The main objectives of this study were: (1) to investigate the decomposition and mineralization of nitroimidazoles (Metronidazole [MNZ], Dimetridazole [DMZ], and Tinidazole [TNZ]) in waste and drinking water using gamma irradiation; (2) to study the decomposition kinetics of these nitroimidazoles; and (3) to evaluate the efficacy of nitroimidazole removal using radical promoters and scavengers. The results obtained showed that nitroimidazole concentrations decreased with increasing absorbed dose. No differences in irradiation kinetic constant were detected for any nitroimidazole studied (0.0014-0.0017 Gy(-1)). The decomposition yield was higher under acidic conditions than in neutral and alkaline media. Results obtained showed that, at appropriate concentrations, H(2)O(2) accelerates MNZ degradation by generating additional HO(); however, when the dosage of H(2)O(2) exceeds the optimal concentration, the efficacy of MNZ degradation is reduced. The presence of t-BuOH (HO() radical scavenger) and thiourea (HO(), H() and e(aq)(-) scavenger) reduced the MNZ irradiation rate, indicating that degradation of this pollutant can take place via two pathways: oxidation by HO() radicals and reduction by e(aq)(-) and H(). MNZ removal rate was slightly lower in subterranean and surface waters than in ultrapure water and was markedly lower in wastewater. Regardless of the water chemical composition, MNZ gamma irradiation can achieve i) a decrease in the concentration of dissolved organic carbon, and ii) a reduction in the toxicity of the system with higher gamma absorbed dose.

Mitochondrial respiratory chain features after gamma-irradiation.

Radiation provokes damage to DNA but also to membrane and protein structure. Radiolysis is a tool used very often in the study of free radical biological effects and of scavenger molecules effectiveness. Nitroimidazoles have been demonstrated to enhance the radiation effects on biological structures. The studies we have performed on isolated mitochondria irradiated, with and without nitroimidazoles, at a radiation dose equal to LD90, indicate that this treatment is not able to affect the structural and functional features investigated (ubiquinone-10, fatty acids, respiratory cytochrome levels or membrane fluidity and respiratory enzymatic activities), suggesting that an involvement of such externally produced radicals on membrane damage is unlikely. Moreover it was ascertained that the mitochondrial redox activities do not take part into the intracellular nitroimidazole reduction.

Kinetic studies of four types of nitroheterocyclic radicals by pulse radiolysis. Correlation of pharmacological properties to decay rates.

The chemical properties of the nitro radical of four types of nitroheterocyclic compounds, nitrofurans, 2-nitroimidazoles, 4(5)-nitroimidazoles, 5-nitroimidazoles, having radiosensitizing and cytotoxic properties, have been studied by pulse radiolysis. The acid-base equilibria involving the nitro radical, the imidazole ring and some residues on the heterocycle have been determined. The pH-dependence of the rate of the disproportionation reaction of the nitro radical have been extensively studied. While the nitro radical derived from nitrofurans, 4- and 5-nitroimidazoles had a second-order decay, those of the 2-nitroimidazoles were found to decay through simultaneous first-order and second-order processes. Intrinsic second-order rate constants of the decay of the radical species in its various acidic and basic forms, could be determined. The intrinsic rate constants that determine the overall decay rates in the physiologically important 6 to 7.5 pH-range could be related to the one-electron redox potential E7(1). The implication of such chemical properties to enzyme-catalyzed reduction processes and to the mechanisms of radiosensitization and cytotoxicity of nitroheterocyclic compounds are briefly discussed. Pharmacological properties such as in vitro radiosensitization efficiency or metabolic reduction rates could be related to two of the nitro radical intrinsic disproportionation rates.

Effect of radiation-induced reduction of nitroimidazoles on biologically active DNA.

Radiation-chemical reductions have been carried out with several nitroimidazoles. Reduction of these drugs in the presence of single-stranded phi chi 174 DNA causes extensive lethal damage. However, relatively stable (end) products, do not contribute to the damage, although glyoxal is potentially toxic. This demonstrates that a short-lived intermediate in the reduction process is responsible. Further, the quantity of damage in the DNA depends on both dose (reduction)-rate and also the nature of the drug.

Reductive fragmentation of 2-nitroimidazoles: amines and aldehydes.

Glyoxal has been identified as a product in the fragmentation of reduced 2-nitroimidazole radiosensitizers. Quantitative analysis of glyoxal as its bis (2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone) derivative shows that it is formed in good yield (9-23%) in a variety of 2-nitroimidazoles. In addition to glyoxal a second as-yet-unidentified carbonyl compound, and a series of amines are formed when reduced 2-nitromidazoles fragment in the presence of water. One of the amines derived from misonidazole is identified as 1-amino-3-methoxypropan-2-ol, the product of extensive ring cleavage. Radiation chemical reduction of the 2-nitromidazoles proceeds with the consumption of 3 electrons for each molecule reduced. This could imply that a radical disproportionation or dimerization step is involved in the reductive degradation of 2-nitroimidazoles.

The oxygen dependence of the reduction of nitroimidazoles in a radiolytic model system.

Radiation chemical reductions using eaq- and CO2- have been carried out in the presence of oxygen with metronidazole, p-nitroacetophenone, misonidazole and three other 2-nitroimidazoles. Low concentrations of oxygen were found to effectively inhibit the reduction of the first two compounds while much higher concentrations of oxygen were required for all of the 2-nitroimidazoles. These results parallel in vitro and in vivo experiments with metronidazole and misonidazole which also indicate that the reduction of the latter is significantly less inhibited by oxygen. Kinetic modelling of the radiochemical system suggests that the explanation for the differences lies in different reactions of the nitro radical anions; it appears that the anion derived from metronidazole undergoes disproportionation while that derived from misonidazole undergoes a unimolecular decay.

Radiation-induced reduction of nitroimidazole derivatives in aqueous solution.

The radiation-induced reduction of N1-alkyl substituted 2- and 5-nitroimidazoles in aqueous solution containing sodium formate or 2-propanol was studied at pH 7.0 +/- 0.1 under deaerated conditions. Irrespective of 2- or 5-nitroimidazole, N1-unsubstituted nitroimidazoles (2-nitro-(1a), 4(5)-nitro-(2a), 2-methyl-4(5)-nitro (3a), and 4(5)-methyl-5(4)-nitro- (4a) imidazoles) were reduced stepwise to consume 6 electrons per molecule, whereas N1-alkyl substituted nitroimidazoles (1-methyl-2-nitro (5a) and 1-methyl-5-nitro (6a) imidazoles, misonidazole (7a), and metronidazole (8a] reacted with consumption of 4 electrons. In accord with the stoichiometry for the reduction of N1-unsubstituted nitroimidazoles, the formation of the amino derivatives of (1a)-(4a) was shown by HPLC or colour identification tests. 4-Electron-reduction products of N1-alkyl substituted 2-nitroimidazoles (5a) and (7a) were characterized by 13C and 1H n.m.r. and FDMS measurements, indicating that the hydroxyamino derivative of (5a) as a 4-electron-reduction product isomerizes to an oxime form. The formation of an analogous oxime-type product was also suggested for (7a) together with a product bearing the partially cleaved imidizole ring. The HPLC analysis showed that 4-electron-reduction products of N1-alkyl substituted 5-nitroimidazoles (6a) and (8a) are unstable relative to those of the corresponding 2-nitroimidazoles (5a) and (7a).

Effect of lipophilicity of nitroimidazoles on radiosensitization of hypoxic bacterial cells in vitro.

The effect of radiosensitization of hypoxic bacterial cells by 9 nitroimidazoles was measured in the bacterial strains E. coli AB 1157 and S. lactis 712. Seven of these compounds were similar to misonidazole in their redox properties, but differed widely in their lipophilicites. The dependence of sensitization enhancement on reduction potential was similar to that reported in mammalian cells. The efficiency of sensitization was similar for compounds of low lipophilicity, but increased if the octanol: water partition coefficients of the compounds were higher than about 3.5. With one compound, otherwise similar to misonidazole, the increased lipophilicity led to about one order of magnitude lower concentration achieving the same degree of radiosensitization.