Dynamic modelling of the killing mechanism of action by virus-infected yeasts.

Killer yeasts are microorganisms, which can produce and secrete proteinaceous toxins, a characteristic gained via infection by a virus. These toxins are able to kill sensitive cells of the same or a related species. From a biotechnological perspective, killer yeasts are beneficial due to their antifungal/antimicrobial activity, but also regarded as problematic for large-scale fermentation processes, whereby those yeasts would kill starter cultures species and lead to stuck fermentations. Here, we propose a mechanistic model of the toxin-binding kinetics pertaining to the killer population coupled with the toxin-induced death kinetics of the sensitive population to study toxic action. The dynamic model captured the transient toxic activity starting from the introduction of killer cells into the culture at the time of inoculation through to induced cell death. The kinetics of K1/K2 activity via its primary pathway of toxicity was 5.5 times faster than its activity at low concentration inducing the apoptotic pathway in sensitive cells. Conversely, we showed that the primary pathway for K28 was approximately three times slower than its equivalent apoptotic pathway, indicating the particular relevance of K28 in biotechnological applications where the toxin concentration is rarely above those limits to trigger the primary pathway of killer activity.

Recombinant Expression of Tandem-HBc Virus-Like Particles (VLPs).

The hepatitis B virus (HBV) core protein (HBc) has formed the building block for virus-like particle (VLP) production for more than 30 years. The ease of production of the protein, the robust ability of the core monomers to dimerize and assemble into intact core particles, and the strong immune responses they elicit when presenting antigenic epitopes all demonstrate its promise for vaccine development (reviewed in Pumpens and Grens (Intervirology 44: 98-114, 2001)). HBc has been modified in a number of ways in attempts to expand its potential as a novel vaccine platform. The HBc protein is predominantly α-helical in structure and folds to form an L-shaped molecule. The structural subunit of the HBc particle is a dimer of monomeric HBc proteins which together form an inverted T-shaped structure. In the assembled HBc particle the four-helix bundle formed at each dimer interface appears at the surface as a prominent "spike." The tips of the "spikes" are the preferred sites for the insertion of foreign sequences for vaccine purposes as they are the most highly exposed regions of the assembled particles. In the tandem-core modification two copies of the HBc protein are covalently linked by a flexible amino acid sequence which allows the fused dimer to fold correctly and assemble into HBc particles. The advantage of the modified structure is that the assembly of the dimeric subunits is defined and not formed by random association. This facilitates the introduction of single, larger sequences at the tip of each surface "spike," thus overcoming the conformational clashes contingent on insertion of large structures into monomeric HBc proteins.Differences in inserted sequences influence the assembly characteristics of the modified proteins, and it is important to optimize the design of each novel construct to maximize efficiency of assembly into regular VLPs. In addition to optimization of the construct, the expression system used can also influence the ability of recombinant structures to assemble into regular isometric particles. Here, we describe the production of recombinant tandem-core particles in bacterial, yeast and plant expression systems.

[Fermentation, purification and immunogenicity evaluation of hepatitis E virus-like particles expressed in Hansenula polymorpha].

To develop a new recombinant hepatitis E vaccine, we used Hansenula polymorpha expression system to express recombinant hepatitis E virus-like particles (HEV VLPs), to construct a recombinant engineered strain HP/HEV2.3. The fermentation conditions and purification process were studied next. The first working seed lots were fermented in liquid culture, and the fermentation products were collected, then crushed, clarified, purified by ultrafiltration, silica gel adsorbed and desorbed, concentrated by ultrafiltration, purified by liquid chromatography and sterilized by filtration. The purity reached 99% with a yield of 33%. Electron microscopy analysis revealed that both the purified recombinant HEV VLPs from HP/HEV2.3 and natural hepatitis E virus particles appear identical of being 32 nm. The resulting DNA sequence obtained from VLPs is identical to the published HEV sequence. The SDS-PAGE analysis has revealed that the protein molecular weight of the HEV VLPs is 56 kDa, and the expression product HEV VLPs were accumulated up to 26% of total cellular protein. The expression level is 1.0 g/L. Western blotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results of the protein and ED50 of the vaccine showed that the HEV VLPs have good antigenicity and immunogenicity. In summary, the recombinant HEV VLPs from Hansenula polymorpha can be used in the manufacture of a new genetically engineered vaccine against hepatitis E.

Coxsackievirus A16-like particles produced in Pichia pastoris elicit high-titer neutralizing antibodies and confer protection against lethal viral challenge in mice.

Coxsackievirus A16 (CA16) is a major causative agent of hand, foot and mouse disease (HFMD) which has been affecting millions of young children annually in the Asia-Pacific region over the last seven years. However, no commercial CA16 vaccines are currently available. In the present study, we investigated the expression of virus-like particles (VLPs) of CA16 in Pichia pastoris yeast and their immunogenicity and protective efficacy in mice. We found that CA16-VLPs could be produced at relatively high levels in P. pastoris yeast transformed with a construct co-expressing the P1 and 3CD proteins of CA16. Mice immunized with the yeast-derived CA16-VLPs produced high-titer serum antibodies with potent neutralization effect specifically on CA16. More importantly, passive immunization with the yeast-derived VLPs fully protected neonatal mice against CA16 lethal challenge in both antisera transfer and maternal immunization experiments. Collectively, our results demonstrate that P. pastoris-derived CA16-VLPs represent a promising CA16 vaccine candidate with proven preclinical efficacy and desirable traits for manufacturing at industrial scale.

Yeast-expressed bacteriophage-like particles for the packaging of nanomaterials.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) generated by heterologous expression of viral structural genes have become powerful tools in vaccine development. Recently, we and others have reported on the assembly of VLPs of the RNA bacteriophages MS2, Qß, and GA in yeast. Here, we investigate the formation of VLPs of five additional phages in the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris, namely, the coliphages SP and fr, Acinetobacter phage AP205, Pseudomonas phage PP7, and Caulobacter phage φCb5. In all cases except SP, particle formation was detected, although VLP outcome varied from 0.2 to 8 mg from 1 g of wet cells. We have found that phage φCb5 VLPs easily dissociate into coat protein dimers when applied to strong anion exchangers. Upon salt removal and the addition of nucleic acid or its mimics and calcium ions, the dimers re-assemble into VLPs with high efficiency. A variety of compounds, including RNA, DNA, and gold nanoparticles can be packaged inside φCb5 VLPs. The ease with which phage φCb5 coat protein dimers can be purified in high quantities and re-assembled into VLPs makes them attractive for downstream applications including the internal packaging of nanomaterials and the chemical coupling of peptides of interest on the surface.

Recombinant haemagglutinin protein of highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) virus expressed in Pichia pastoris elicits a neutralizing antibody response in mice.

Recombinant avian influenza vaccines offer several advantages over the conventional vaccines. In this study, the haemagglutinin (HA) gene of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 was cloned and expressed as His tagged protein in methylotropic yeast Pichia pastoris. The expression of recombinant HA (rHA) protein was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and western blot analysis. The rHA protein was purified using Ni-NTA affinity chromatography under denaturing conditions and the functions of the protein was assessed by the haemagglutinin assay after refolding. The immunogenicity of the rHA was evaluated by immunizing four groups of mice with different payloads (2.5, 5.0, 10 and 25µg) of purified rHA and the production of rHA specific antibodies were analysed by haemagglutinin inhibition assay (HI) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). An antigen specific immune response was observed against rHA indicating that the rHA antigen could be used as a vaccine candidate against avian influenza. These results suggest that this strategy would pave the way for the development of rapid and cost effective method for the production of an avian influenza vaccine.

Production of L1 protein from different types of HPV in Pichia pastoris using an integrative vector

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the most common sexually transmitted disease in the world and is related to the etiology of cervical cancer. The most common high-risk HPV types are 16 and 18; however, the second most prevalent type in the Midwestern region of Brazil is HPV-33. New vaccine strategies against HPV have shown that virus-like particles (VLP) of the major capsid protein (L1) induce efficient production of antibodies, which confer protection against the same viral type. The methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris is an efficient and inexpensive expression system for the production of high levels of heterologous proteins stably using a wild-type gene in combination with an integrative vector. It was recently demonstrated that P. pastoris can produce the HPV-16 L1 protein by using an episomal vector associated with the optimized L1 gene. However, the use of an episomal vector is not appropriate for protein production on an industrial scale. In the present study, the vectors were integrated into the Pichia genome and the results were positive for L1 gene transcription and protein production, both intracellularly and in the extracellular environment. Despite the great potential for expression by the P. pastoris system, our results suggest a low yield of L1 recombinant protein, which, however, does not make this system unworkable. The achievement of stable clones containing the expression cassettes integrated in the genome may permit optimizations that could enable the establishment of a platform for the production of VLP-based vaccines.

Production of L1 protein from different types of HPV in Pichia pastoris using an integrative vector.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the most common sexually transmitted disease in the world and is related to the etiology of cervical cancer. The most common high-risk HPV types are 16 and 18; however, the second most prevalent type in the Midwestern region of Brazil is HPV-33. New vaccine strategies against HPV have shown that virus-like particles (VLP) of the major capsid protein (L1) induce efficient production of antibodies, which confer protection against the same viral type. The methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris is an efficient and inexpensive expression system for the production of high levels of heterologous proteins stably using a wild-type gene in combination with an integrative vector. It was recently demonstrated that P. pastoris can produce the HPV-16 L1 protein by using an episomal vector associated with the optimized L1 gene. However, the use of an episomal vector is not appropriate for protein production on an industrial scale. In the present study, the vectors were integrated into the Pichia genome and the results were positive for L1 gene transcription and protein production, both intracellularly and in the extracellular environment. Despite the great potential for expression by the P. pastoris system, our results suggest a low yield of L1 recombinant protein, which, however, does not make this system unworkable. The achievement of stable clones containing the expression cassettes integrated in the genome may permit optimizations that could enable the establishment of a platform for the production of VLP-based vaccines.

Expression and characterization of HPV-16 L1 capsid protein in Pichia pastoris.

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are responsible for the most common human sexually transmitted viral infections. Infection with high-risk HPVs, particularly HPV16, is associated with the development of cervical cancer. The papillomavirus L1 major capsid protein, the basis of the currently marketed vaccines, self-assembles into virus-like particles (VLPs). Here, we describe the expression, purification and characterization of recombinant HPV16 L1 produced by a methylotrophic yeast. A codon-optimized HPV16 L1 gene was cloned into a non-integrative expression vector under the regulation of a methanol-inducible promoter and used to transform competent Pichia pastoris cells. Purification of L1 protein from yeast extracts was performed using heparin-sepharose chromatography, followed by a disassembly/reassembly step. VLPs could be assembled from the purified L1 protein, as demonstrated by electron microscopy. The display of conformational epitopes on the VLPs surface was confirmed by hemagglutination and hemagglutination inhibition assays and by immuno-electron microscopy. This study has implications for the development of an alternative platform for the production of a papillomavirus vaccine that could be provided by public health programs, especially in resource-poor areas, where there is a great demand for low-cost vaccines.

Secreted expression and purification of dengue 2 virus full-length nonstructural glycoprotein NS1 in Pichia pastoris.

The dengue 2 virus (DEN-2) RNA (NGC strain) was used as a substrate to produce DNA clones of the full-length NS1 genes via reverse transcriptase synthesis of cDNA followed by polymerase chain reaction amplification of the NS1 region. Products were cloned into pPICZalphaB vector for sequencing and into Pichia pastoris for expression. A recombinant protein with a molecular size of approximately 80 KDa was secreted into the supernatant from the yeast cells when induced with methanol. The expressed protein was able to bind with mouse polyclonal antibody or NS1-specific monoclonal antibody of dengue 2 virus. Purified NS1-poly(His)-tagged fusion protein was obtained from the expressed product by passing through a metal-chelating affinity chromatographic (MCAC) column. The study also verified that our purified rNS1 protein retained its antigenicity. High-level production of the rNS1 protein up to 70 mg/l indicates that P. pastoris is an efficient expression system for dengue virus full-length NS1 glycoprotein.

The recombinant rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus VP60 protein obtained from Pichia pastoris induces a strong humoral and cell-mediated immune response following intranasal immunization in mice.

Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) is a contagious and highly lethal viral disease of rabbits that spreads rapidly and infects animals by nasal, conjunctival and oral routes. Therefore, this experiment was undertaken to study the immune response generated after intranasal (i.n.) vaccination with the recombinant VP60 capsid protein from rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) expressed at high levels in Pichia pastoris. Groups of BALB/c mice were immunized with three doses of purified VP60 protein (Group 1), VP60 formulated within the cell debris fraction of the transformed yeast (Group 2) and placebo (Group 3) by intranasal route. Mice were also intramuscularly injected with purified VP60 protein (Group 4). A rapid antibody response specific against rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus was observed in all the experimental groups, except in Group 3, as detected by ELISA. The highest titers were found 60 days after the first immunization. Mice from Group 1 showed the highest IgG response (p<0.05) and the most balanced profile of IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b subclasses. IgA titers specific to the virus were found only in animals from this group, which also developed the highest specific lymphocyte proliferative response. Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-12 (IL-12) gene expression was also detected after an ex vivo-specific stimulation of mice from Groups 1 and 4. These data demonstrated the capacity of VP60 protein expressed in P. pastoris to elicit a potent humoral and cell-mediated immune response following an intranasal immunization scheme.

Signal peptide peptidase promotes the formation of hepatitis C virus non-enveloped particles and is captured on the viral membrane during assembly.

The maturation of the core protein (C) of Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is controlled by the signal peptidase (sp) and signal peptide peptidase (spp) of the host. To date, it remains unknown whether spp cleavage influences viral infectivity and/or the assembly process. Here, evidence is provided that cleavage by spp is not required for assembly of nucleocapsid-like particles (NLPs) in yeast (Pichia pastoris). The immature NLPs (not processed by spp) show a density of 1.11 g ml(-1) on sucrose gradients and a diameter of 50 nm. Co-expression of human spp (hspp) with C generates the 21 kDa mature form of the protein and promotes the accumulation of non-enveloped particles. The amount of non-enveloped particles accumulating in the cell was correlated directly with the expression level of hspp. Furthermore, immunocapture studies showed that hspp was embedded in the membranes of enveloped particles. These results suggest that maturation of the C protein can occur after formation of the enveloped particles and that the abundance of hspp influences the types of particle accumulating in the cells.

The vaccinia virus N1L protein influences cytokine secretion in vitro after infection.

The vaccinia virus N1L ORF encodes a protein that enhances virulence and replication of the virus by an unknown mechanism. It has been studied for its ability to enhance viral replication and dissemination in the brain and more recently has been linked to an immunomodulatory role in which it inhibits the activation of cytokine transcription activators in Toll-like receptor signaling pathways after pathogen recognition. The effect of N1L on the release of cytokines from human primary monocytes was investigated. Secretion of the proinflammatory, antiviral cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IFN-alpha, IFN-beta, and the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was found to be inhibited by the presence of the N1L protein.

[Study of the genetical stability of the system of expression of protein E of dengue virus 4 in methyltrophic yeast Pichia pastoris]. / Estudio de la estabilidad genética del sistema de expresión de la proteína E del virus dengue 4 en la levadura metilotrófica Pichia pastoris.

The plasmidic stability of methyltrophic yeast Pichia pastoris expressing the recombinant protein E of dengue virus 4 was analyzed. To this end, the number of generations from the growth process in petri plaque to the propagation in zaranda was estimated, as well as the fermentation process. Besides, in the selected colonies the integration pattern was determined by Dot-Blot and neuclotide sequence of the gene E of dengue virus 4. This study allowed to prove the conservation and integrity of the aminoacid sequence of protein E, despite the genetic changes produced by molecular yeast mechanisms. On the other hand, it was also part of the control and checking of the primary bank of yeast cells that contains the gene of interest used at present in the process of expression of protein E of dengue virus 4.

Characterization of the HCV core virus-like particles produced in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris.

Little is known about the mechanism of hepatitis C virion assembly. So the capacity of the entire Hepatitis C virus core protein (HCcAg) produced in Pichia pastoris to form particles either in its native soluble state or after detergent treatment of HCcAg associated to cell debris were studied. Size exclusion chromatography suggested that HCcAg assembled into high molecular weight structures. HCcAg was also specifically recognized by a serum from a chronic HCV carrier patient. This antigen migrated with buoyant density values similar to those obtained for native nucleocapsid particles from infected patients when analyzed using sucrose density gradient centrifugation. The analysis by electron microscopy of purified HCcAg showed aggregates resembling virus-like particles (VLPs) with an average diameter of 30 nm. These results indicated that the HCcAg obtained from P. pastoris assembled into VLPs resembling HCV nucleocapsid particles in a mature stage. Such HCcAg aggregates characterized here could be a valuable tool to elucidate the mechanisms of HCV nucleocapsid assembly.

The X gene of hepatitis B virus shows a high level stimulation of the Rous sarcoma virus long terminal repeat in the methylotropic yeast, Pichia pastoris.

In order to study the transactivational property of the X gene in the methylotropic yeast Pichia pastoris, a Rous sarcoma virus-chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (RSV-CAT) cassette was co-transformed and integrated into the host yeast strain as a reporter which showed an overwhelming CAT activity. Immunoprecipitation of the yeast cell extracts with an X-specific monoclonal antibody, however, showed a low level expression of the X gene. Therefore besides a trans-effect of the X protein, the enhanced reporter activity could be a manifestation of a cis-effect of the X gene sequences also. Therefore, unlike the transactivation studies with X gene in animal cells where limited functional activity is observed, P. pastoris appears to be an excellent system to study cis- and trans-aspects of gene regulation by the X gene.

Expression of the dengue virus structural proteins in Pichia pastoris leads to the generation of virus-like particles.

We have expressed cDNA encoding the dengue virus structural proteins in Pichia pastoris by chromosomal integration of an expression cassette containing the dengue virus structural genes (CprME). The yeast recombinant E protein migrated during SDS-PAGE as a 65 kDa protein when analysed by Western blotting and radioimmunoprecipitation, which is the expected molecular mass for correctly processed and glycosylated E protein. Treatment with endoglycosidases showed that the recombinant E protein was modified by the addition of short mannose chains. The E protein migrated with a buoyant density of 1.13 g/cm3 when analysed using sucrose density gradient centrifugation. Spherical structures with an average diameter of 30 nm, whose morphology resembles dengue virions, were observed in the purified fractions using transmission electron microscopy. Furthermore, the virus-like particles were immunogenic in animals and were able to induce neutralizing antibodies. This is the first report that expression of the structural genes of a flavivirus in yeast is able to generate particulate structures that resemble virions.