Giardia duodenalis Rad52 protein: biochemical characterization and response upon DNA damage.

Giardia duodenalis is a flagellated binucleated protozoan that colonizes the small intestine in mammals, causing giardiasis, acute or chronic diarrhea. DNA double strand break either endogenously or exogenously generated is a major insult to DNA and its repair by homologous recombination (HR) is crucial for genomic stability. During HR, Rad52 plays key roles in the loading of the Rad51 recombinase, and the annealing of the second double-strand break end to the displaced strand of the D-loop structure. Among the functions found in vitro in yeast and human Rad52 protein are: ssDNA or dsDNA binding activity, ability to anneal bare or RPA coated-ssDNA, as well as multimeric ring formation. In this work, we searched for conserved domains in a putative Rad52 protein from G. duodenalis (GdRad52). Its coding sequence was cloned, expressed and purified to study its biochemical properties. rGdRad52 binds to dsDNA and ssDNA, with greater affinity for the latter. Likewise, rGdRad52 promotes annealing of DNA uncoated and coated with GdRPA1. rGdRad52 interacts with GdDMC1B and with GdRPA1 protein as shown in far western blotting assay. Additionally, rGdRad52 formed multimeric rings as observed by electronic microscopy. Finally, GdRad52 is over expressed in response upon DNA damage inflicted on trophozoites.

Estudo dos mecanismos moleculares do reparo de quebra de duplas fitas no DNA mitocondrial / Study of the molecular mechanisms of double-strand break repair in mitochondrial DNA

O DNA está constantemente exposto a danos causados tanto por agentes endógenos quanto exógenos. Estes podem causar diferentes tipos de lesões incluindo modificações de bases e do açúcar, além de quebras de fitas simples ou duplas. As quebras de duplas fitas, quando comparadas às demais, constituem as mais citotóxicas e podem resultar em deleções no DNA e instabilidade genética. Deleções no DNA mitocondrial (mtDNA) causam diversas doenças e estão envolvidas no processo de envelhecimento. No núcleo, as quebras de duplas fitas no DNA podem ser reparadas por recombinação homóloga (HR), ligação de pontas não homólogas (NHEJ) e anelamento de fita simples (SSA). No entanto, em mitocôndrias de células de mamíferos, o reparo de quebras de duplas fitas ainda não foi completamente caracterizado. Experimentos in vitro usando extratos mitocondriais de células de roedores mostraram que estes são capazes de reparar essas quebras, no entanto pouco é sabido sobre quais proteínas são responsáveis por cada etapa de reparo, bem como sua implicação na manutenção da integridade do genoma mitocondrial. Sendo assim, nesse trabalho investigamos a localização e função mitocondrial das proteínas ATM, Rad51, Rad52, Ku70/86 e DNA-PKCs, que são sabidamente envolvidas em reparo de quebras de duplas fitas no núcleo. Para identificar essas proteínas em mitocôndrias de células de mamíferos, mitocôndrias foram isoladas a partir de células da linhagem HEK293T, usando centrifugação diferencial seguida por gradiente de Percoll. Para as proteínas de recombinação homóloga, ATM e Rad51, imunodetectamos isoformas semelhantes em todos os compartimentos celulares. Já para a proteína Rad52 o mesmo anticorpo imunodetectou duas bandas distintas na mitocôndria ao passo que no núcleo foram quatro. Além disso, verificamos que baixos níveis de proteína Rad52, induzidos pela expressão de shRNA (short hairping RNA) específico, resultam em diminuição do número de cópias de mtDNA bem como acúmulo de deleções no genoma mitocondrial. Para as proteínas de NHEJ, DNA-PKCs e a subunidade Ku70, identificamos isoformas semelhantes em todos os compartimentos celulares. Já para a subunidade 86 do heterodímero Ku70/86 o anticorpo detectou, somente em mitocôndrias, uma banda menor de 50 kDa, a qual difere na região N-terminal da subunidade detectada no núcleo (86 KDa). Experimentos de co-imunprecitação de proteínas mostraram que essa isoforma menor compõe o heterodímero mitocondrial juntamente com a subunidade 70 (mtKu70/50) e que esse interage com DNA ligase III mitocondrial. Nossos resultados também mostraram que a estabilidade proteica de mtKu70/50 é regulada por ATM. Tratamento das células com peróxido de hidrogênio, que induz quebras de duplas fitas, aumentou a associação do heterodímero mtKu70/50 com o mtDNA, de forma independente de aumento da concentração proteica intra-mitocondrial. Já a diminuição dos níveis proteicos de Ku, induzida através de shRNA, resultou em diminuição do número de cópias de mtDNA e acumulo de danos nesse genoma. Extratos mitocondriais de células knockdown para Ku apresentaram menor atividade de reparo NHEJ em um ensaio in vitro, sugerindo que o acúmulo de danos nestas células é provavelmente devido a deficiências na via de NHEJ. Em conjunto, nossos dados sugerem que tanto HR quanto NHEJ operam em mitocôndrias. Além disso, a via de NHEJ mitocondrial utiliza o heterodímero mitocondrial Ku70/50 o qual está envolvido na manutenção do mtDNA. Ademais, nossos resultados mostram uma grande conservação molecular e funcional entre as vias de reparo de NHEJ e HR no núcleo e na mitocôndria, o que reforça sua importância para a manutenção da estabilidade genômica mitocondrial e, provavelmente a função mitocondrial

DNA is constantly exposed to damaging agents from both endogenous and exogenous sources. These can cause different types of DNA lesions that include base and sugar modifications and single and double strand breaks. DNA doublestrand breaks (DSBs) are among the most cytotoxic DNA lesions, which can result in deletions and genetic instability. Deletions in the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cause numerous human diseases and drive normal aging. DSBs in the nuclear DNA are repaired by non-homologous DNA end joining (NHEJ), homologous recombination (HR) or Single Strand Annealing (SSA). Yet, repair of DSBs in mammalian mitochondria has not been fully characterized. Mitochondrial extracts from rodent cells are proficient in ligating DNA ends in vitro, but little is known about which proteins are responsible for each enzymatic step and its implication in mitochondrial genome maintenance. Thus, we investigated mitochondrial localization and function of DSBR (double strand break repair) proteins ATM, Rad51, Rad52, the Ku70/86 heterodimer and DNA-PKCs.To identify DSBR proteins in mammalian mitochondria, highly purified mitochondria from HEK293T cells were isolated using differential centrifugation followed by Percoll gradient. For HR proteins, we detected similar isoforms for ATM and Rad51 proteins in all cellular compartments. Two mitochondriaspecific isoforms of Rad52 were detected, while the same antibody detected four isoforms in the nucleus. In addition, lower Rad52 protein levels, induced by specific shRNA expression, result in decreased mtDNA copy number and accumulation of deleted mitochondrial genomes. For NHEJ proteins, similar isoforms of DNA-PKcs and the Ku70 subunit were detected in all cellular compartments. On the other hand, antibodies against the Ku86 subunit detected a smaller band in mitochondrial extracts (50 KDa), lacking the N-terminal region of the canonical isoform detected in the nucleus (86 KDa). The mitochondrial Ku70/50 heterodimer interacts with mitochondrial DNA ligase III, suggesting a role in DSBR. Moreover, stability of the mtKu heterodimer is regulated by ATM. Hydrogen peroxide treatment, which induces DSBs, increases mtKu70/50 association with the mtDNA and cells with reduced Ku levels, also induced by shRNA transfection, have lower mtDNA copy number and accumulate mtDNA damage. Moreover, mitochondrial extracts from Ku knockdown cells show lower NHEJ repair activity in an in vitro assay, suggesting that damage accumulation in these cells is likely due to deficiencies in NHEJ. Together, our data suggest that both HR and NHEJ operate in mitochondria. Also, mtNHEJ requires the Ku heterodimer and is involved in mtDNA maintenance. Moreover, our results indicate that there is a significant molecular and functional conservation between NHEJ and HR repair pathways in the nucleus and in mitochondria, which reinforces their importance for maintenance of mitochondrial genomic stability and, likely mitochondrial function

LIG4 and RAD52 DNA repair genes polymorphisms and systemic lupus erythematosus.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disorder with a strong genetic background. Nevertheless, SLE might also be triggered due to environmental factors, such as UV light exposure. DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) may be induced secondarily by UV radiation, increasing DNA immunogenicity and in SLE patients DNA repair is diminished, allowing the accumulation of DSBs and genomic instability. LIG4 and RAD52 genes play important roles in DNA repair mechanisms and a recent microarray analysis showed their differential expression in active SLE patients. In this study we investigated a potential association between LIG4 and RAD52 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and SLE predisposition in a Southeast Brazilian population. We assessed four Tag SNPs in LIG4 and three in RAD52 gene region, encompassing most of the gene sequence, in 158 SLE patients and 212 healthy controls. We also performed SNPs analysis considering clinical manifestation, gender and ethnicity in SLE patients. Our data did not show association between LIG4 and RAD52 SNPs and SLE, its clinical manifestations or ethnicity in the tested population. The analysis regarding ethnicity and SLE clinical manifestations indicated Caucasian-derived patients as more susceptible to cutaneous and hematological alterations than the African-derived. To our knowledge, this is the first association study involving LIG4 and RAD52 genes and SLE predisposition.

Sak1 kinase interacts with Pso2 nuclease in response to DNA damage induced by interstrand crosslink-inducing agents in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

By isolating putative binding partners through the two-hybrid system (THS) we further extended the characterization of the specific interstrand cross-link (ICL) repair gene PSO2 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nine fusion protein products were isolated for Pso2p using THS, among them the Sak1 kinase, which interacted with the C-terminal ß-CASP domain of Pso2p. Comparison of mutagen-sensitivity phenotypes of pso2Δ, sak1Δ and pso2Δsak1Δ disruptants revealed that SAK1 is necessary for complete WT-like repair. The epistatic interaction of both mutant alleles suggests that Sak1p and Pso2p act in the same pathway of controlling sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents. We also observed that Pso2p is phosphorylated by Sak1 kinase in vitro and co-immunoprecipitates with Sak1p after 8-MOP+UVA treatment. Survival data after treatment of pso2Δ, yku70Δ and yku70Δpso2Δ with nitrogen mustard, PSO2 and SAK1 with YKU70 or DNL4 single-, double- and triple mutants with 8-MOP+UVA indicated that ICL repair is independent of YKu70p and DNL4p in S. cerevisiae. Furthermore, a non-epistatic interaction was observed between MRE11, PSO2 and SAK1 genes after ICL induction, indicating that their encoded proteins act on the same substrate, but in distinct repair pathways. In contrast, an epistatic interaction was observed for PSO2 and RAD52, PSO2 and RAD50, PSO2 and XRS2 genes in 8-MOP+UVA treated exponentially growing cells.

Homologous recombination and non-homologous end-joining repair pathways in bovine embryos with different developmental competence.

This study investigated the expression of genes controlling homologous recombination (HR), and non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) DNA-repair pathways in bovine embryos of different developmental potential. It also evaluated whether bovine embryos can respond to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) induced with ultraviolet irradiation by regulating expression of genes involved in HR and NHEJ repair pathways. Embryos with high, intermediate or low developmental competence were selected based on the cleavage time after in vitro insemination and were removed from in vitro culture before (36 h), during (72 h) and after (96 h) the expected period of embryonic genome activation. All studied genes were expressed before, during and after the genome activation period regardless the developmental competence of the embryos. Higher mRNA expression of 53BP1 and RAD52 was found before genome activation in embryos with low developmental competence. Expression of 53BP1, RAD51 and KU70 was downregulated at 72 h and upregulated at 168 h post-insemination in response to DSBs induced by ultraviolet irradiation. In conclusion, important genes controlling HR and NHEJ DNA-repair pathways are expressed in bovine embryos, however genes participating in these pathways are only regulated after the period of embryo genome activation in response to ultraviolet-induced DSBs.

A transient assay for recombination demonstrates that Arabidopsis SNM1 and XRCC3 enhance non-homologous recombination.

Replacement of endogenous genes by homologous recombination is rare in plants; the majority of genetic modifications are the result of transforming DNA molecules undergoing random genomic insertion by way of non-homologous recombination. Factors that affect chromatin remodeling and DNA repair are thought to have the potential to enhance the frequency of homologous recombination in plants. Conventional tools to study the frequencies of genetic recombination often rely on stable transformation-based approaches, with these systems being rarely capable of high-throughput or combinatorial analysis. We developed a series of vectors that use chemiluminescent (LUC and REN) reporter genes to assay the relative frequency of homologous and non-homologous recombination in plants. These transient assay vectors were used to screen 14 candidate genes for their effects on recombination frequencies in Nicotiana benthamiana plants. Over-expression of Arabidopsis genes with sequence similarity to SNM1 from yeast and XRCC3 from humans enhanced the frequency of non-homologous recombination when assayed using two different donor vectors. Transient N. benthamiana leaf systems were also used in an alternative assay for preliminary measurements of homologous recombination frequencies, which were found to be enhanced by over-expression of RAD52, MIM and RAD51 from yeast, as well as CHR24 from Arabidopsis. The findings for the assays described here are in line with previous studies that analyzed recombination frequencies using stable transformation. The assays we report have revealed functions in non-homologous recombination for the Arabidopsis SNM1 and XRCC3 genes, so the suppression of these genes' expression offers a potential means to enhance the gene targeting frequency in plants. Furthermore, our findings also indicate that plant gene targeting frequencies could be enhanced by over-expression of RAD52, MIM, CHR24, and RAD51 genes.

Further characterization of the yeast pso4-1 mutant: interaction with rad51 and rad52 mutants after photoinduced psoralen lesions.

The pso4-1 mutant was characterized as deficient in some types of recombination, including gene conversion, crossing over, and intrachromosomal recombination. The mode of interaction between pso4-1 and rad51 and between pso4-1 and rad52 mutants indicated that the PSO4 gene belongs to the RAD52 epistasis group for strand-break repair. Moreover, the presence of the pso4-1 mutation decreased 8-MOP-photoinduced mutagenesis of the rad51 and rad52 mutants. Complementation tests using heterozygous diploid strains showed that the pso4 protein might interact with the rad52 protein during repair of 8-mop photolesions. The pso4-1 mutant, even though defective in inter- and intra-chromosomal recombination, conserves the ability for plasmid integration of circular and linear plasmid DNA. On the other hand, similar to the rad51 mutant, pso4-1 was able to incise but did not restore high-molecular-weight DNA during the repair of cross links induced by 8-MOP plus UVA. These results, together with those of previous reports, indicate that the PSO4 gene belongs to the RAD52 DNA repair group and its product participates in the DNA rejoining step of the repair of cross-link lesions, which are crucial for induced mutagenesis and recombinogenesis.