[PROSPECTS OF USING ADENOSINE, OPIOID AND BRADYKININ RECEPTOR AGONISTS FOR PHARMACOLOGICAL IMITATION OF HEART POSTCONDITIONING PHENOMENON.]

It is known that agonists of adenosine, opioid, and bradykinin receptors mimic the phenomenon of ischemic postconditioning. There is no commonly accepted notion of what adenosine receptor subtypes must be activated to increase cardiac resistance to reperfusion injury. Intravenous infusion of adenosine or intracoronary administration of adenosine produce infarct-limiting effect and contribute to a more complete restoration of coronary blood flow after recanalization of the infarct-related coronary artery. It was confirmed that opioids mimic the phenomenon of postconditioning. According to obtained data, the most promising compounds for the prevention of reperfusion injury of the heart are κ(1)- and δ(2)-opioid receptor agonists, as they produce the infarct-limiting effect, while not reducing the arterial pressure.

Trancriptomic approach reveals the molecular diversity of Hottentotta conspersus (Buthidae) venom.

Scorpion venom consists of a complex mixture of molecules including biologically active compounds. Because of their high potency and selectivity, toxins have medical applicability. In the last decades, scorpion toxins have thus gained considerable interest among scientist in the fields of pharmacology, biophysics and neurobiology. Identification of scorpion venom peptides and toxins can be achieved based on transcriptome approaches. We constructed the first cDNA library and Expressed Sequence Tag (EST) study to explore the transcriptomic composition of the telson from the southern African scorpion Hottentotta conspersus, belonging to the family Buthidae. We obtained 21 new venom-related sequences (8 contigs and 16 singlets) from a total of 98 ESTs analyzed, including putative neurotoxins (chloride, potassium, sodium and calcium channel toxins), bradykinin-potentiating peptides and other venom peptides without established function. These novel toxin-related sequences might serve as basis for further research both of pharmaceutical and phylogenetic nature.

Characterisation and mechanisms of bradykinin-evoked pain in man using iontophoresis.

Bradykinin (BK) is an inflammatory mediator that can evoke oedema and vasodilatation, and is a potent algogen signalling via the B1 and B2 G-protein coupled receptors. In naïve skin, BK is effective via constitutively expressed B2 receptors (B2R), while B1 receptors (B1R) are purported to be upregulated by inflammation. The aim of this investigation was to optimise BK delivery to investigate the algesic effects of BK and how these are modulated by inflammation. BK iontophoresis evoked dose- and temperature-dependent pain and neurogenic erythema, as well as thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia (P < 0.001 vs saline control). To differentiate the direct effects of BK from indirect effects mediated by histamine released from mast cells (MCs), skin was pretreated with compound 4880 to degranulate the MCs prior to BK challenge. The early phase of BK-evoked pain was reduced in degranulated skin (P < 0.001), while thermal and mechanical sensitisation, wheal, and flare were still evident. In contrast to BK, the B1R selective agonist des-Arg9-BK failed to induce pain or sensitise naïve skin. However, following skin inflammation induced by ultraviolet B irradiation, this compound produced a robust pain response. We have optimised a versatile experimental model by which BK and its analogues can be administered to human skin. We have found that there is an early phase of BK-induced pain which partly depends on the release of inflammatory mediators by MCs; however, subsequent hyperalgesia is not dependent on MC degranulation. In naïve skin, B2R signaling predominates, however, cutaneous inflammation results in enhanced B1R responses.

Differential regulation of collagen secretion by kinin receptors in cardiac fibroblast and myofibroblast.

UNLABELLED: Kinins mediate their cellular effects through B1 (B1R) and B2 (B2R) receptors, and the activation of B2R reduces collagen synthesis in cardiac fibroblasts (CF). However, the question of whether B1R and/or B2R have a role in cardiac myofibroblasts remains unanswered. METHODS: CF were isolated from neonate rats and myofibroblasts were generated by an 84 h treatment with TGF-ß1 (CMF). B1R was evaluated by western blot, immunocytochemistry and radioligand assay; B2R, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and cyclooxygenases 1 and 2 (COX-1, and COX-2) were evaluated by western blot; intracellular Ca⁺² levels were evaluated with Fluo-4AM; collagen secretion was measured in the culture media using the picrosirius red assay kit. RESULTS: B2R, iNOS, COX-1 and low levels of B1R but not eNOS, were detected by western blot in CF. Also, B1R, B2R, and COX-2 but not iNOS, eNOS or COX-1, were detected by western blot in CMF. By immunocytochemistry, our results showed lower intracellular B1R levels in CF and higher B1R levels in CMF, mainly localized on the cell membrane. Additionally, we found B1R only in CMF cellular membrane through radioligand displacement assay. Bradykinin (BK) B2R agonist increased intracellular Ca²âº levels and reduced collagen secretion both in CF and CMF. These effects were blocked by HOE-140, and inhibited by L-NAME, 1400 W and indomethacin. Des-Arg-kallidin (DAKD) B1R agonist did not increase intracellular Ca²âº levels in CF; however, after preincubation for 1h with DAKD and re-stimulation with the same agonist, we found a low increase in intracellular Ca²âº levels. Finally, DAKD increased intracellular Ca²âº levels and decreased collagen secretion in CMF, being this effect blocked by the B1R antagonist des-Arg9-Leu8-kallidin and indomethacin, but not by L-NAME or 1400 W. CONCLUSION: B1R, B2R, iNOS and COX-1 were expressed differently between CF and CMF, and collagen secretion was regulated differentially by kinin receptor agonists in cultured CF and CMF.

N-terminal extended conjugates of the agonists and antagonists of both bradykinin receptor subtypes: structure-activity relationship, cell imaging using ligands conjugated with fluorophores and prospect for functionally active cargoes.

Peptide agonists and antagonists of both bradykinin (BK) B(1) and B(2) receptors (B(1)R, B(2)R) are known to tolerate to a certain level N-terminal sequence extensions. Using this strategy, we produced and characterized the full set of fluorescent ligands by extending both agonists and antagonist peptides at both receptor subtypes with 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (CF) and the ε-aminocaproyl (ε-ACA) optional spacer. Alternatively, kinin receptor ligands were extended with another carboxylic acid cargo (chlorambucil, biotinyl, pentafluorocinnamoyl, AlexaFluor-350 (AF350), ferrocenoyl, cetirizine) or with fluorescein isothiocyanate. N-terminal extension always reduced receptor affinity, more importantly for bulkier substituents and more so for the agonist version compared to the antagonist. This loss was generally alleviated by the presence of the spacer and modulated by the species of origin for the receptor. We report and review the pharmacological properties of these N-terminally extended peptides and the use of fluorophore-conjugated ligands in imaging of cell receptors and of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in intact cells. Antagonists (B(1)R: B-10376: CF-ε-ACA-Lys-Lys-[Hyp(3), CpG(5), D-Tic(7), CpG(8)]des-Arg(9)-BK; B(2)R: B-10380: CF-ε-ACA-D-Arg-[Hyp(3), Igl(5), D-Igl(7), Oic(8)]-BK and fluorescein-5-thiocarbamoyl (FTC)-B-9430) label the plasma membrane of cells expressing the cognate receptors. The B(2)R agonists CF-ε-ACA-BK, AF350-ε-ACA-BK and FTC-B-9972 are found in endosomes and model the endosomal degradation of BK in a complementary manner. The uneven surface fluorescence associated to the B(1)R agonist B-10378 (CF-ε-ACA-Lys-des-Arg(9)-BK) is compatible with a particular form of agonist-induced receptor translocation. CF-ε-ACA-BK binds to the carboxydipeptidase ACE with an affinity identical to that of BK. Metal- or drug-containing cargoes further show the prospect of ligands that confer special signaling to kinin receptors.

Novel kinin B1 receptor agonists with improved pharmacological profiles.

There is some evidence to suggest that inducible kinin B1 receptors (B1R) may play beneficial and protecting roles in cardiovascular-related pathologies such as hypertension, diabetes, and ischemic organ diseases. Peptide B1R agonists bearing optimized pharmacological features (high potency, selectivity and stability toward proteolysis) hold promise as valuable therapeutic agents in the treatment of these diseases. In the present study, we used solid-phase methodology to synthesize a series of novel peptide analogues based on the sequence of Sar[dPhe(8)]desArg(9)-bradykinin, a relatively stable peptide agonist with moderate affinity for the human B1R. We evaluated the pharmacological properties of these peptides using (1) in vitro competitive binding experiments on recombinant human B1R and B2R (for index of selectivity determination) in transiently transfected human embryonic kidney 293 cells (HEK-293T cells), (2) ex vivo vasomotor assays on isolated human umbilical veins expressing endogenous human B1R, and (3) in vivo blood pressure tests using anesthetized lipopolysaccharide-immunostimulated rabbits. Key chemical modifications at the N-terminus, the positions 3 and 5 on Sar[dPhe(8)]desArg(9)-bradykinin led to potent analogues. For example, peptides 18 (SarLys[Hyp(3),Cha(5), dPhe(8)]desArg(9)-bradykinin) and 20 (SarLys[Hyp(3),Igl(5), dPhe(8)]desArg(9)-bradykinin) outperformed the parental molecule in terms of affinity, functional potency and duration of action in vitro and in vivo. These selective agonists should be valuable in future animal and human studies to investigate the potential benefits of B1R activation.

TNF-alpha and IL-1beta mediate inflammatory hypernociception in mice triggered by B1 but not B2 kinin receptor.

Kinin receptors are involved in the genesis of inflammatory pain. However, there is controversy concerning the mechanism by which B(1) and B(2) kinin receptors mediate inflammatory hypernociception. In the present study, the role of these receptors on inflammatory hypernociception in mice was addressed. Mechanical hypernociception was detected with an electronic pressure meter paw test in mice and cytokines were measured by ELISA. It was observed that in naïve mice a B(2) (d-Arg-Hyp(3), d-Phe(7)-bradykinin) but not a B(1) kinin receptor antagonist (des-Arg(9)-[Leu(8)]-bradykinin, DALBK) inhibited bradykinin- and carrageenin-induced hypernociception. Bradykinin-induced hypernociception was inhibited by indomethacin (5 mg/kg) and guanethidine (30 mg/kg), while not affected by IL-1ra (10 mg/kg) or antibody against keratinocyte-derived chemokine (KC/CXCL-1, 500 ng/paw) or in TNFR1 knockout mice. By contrast, in previously lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed mouse paw, B(1) but not B(2) kinin receptor antagonist inhibited bradykinin hypernociception. Furthermore, B(1) kinin receptor agonist induced mechanical hypernociception in LPS-primed mice, which was inhibited by indomethacin, guanethidine, antiserum against TNF-alpha or IL-1ra. This was corroborated by the induction of TNF-alpha and IL-1beta release by B(1) kinin receptor agonist in LPS-primed mouse paws. Moreover, B(1) but not B(2) kinin receptor antagonist inhibited carrageenin-induced hypernociception, and TNF-alpha and IL-1beta release as well, in LPS-primed mice. These results suggest that in naïve mice the B(2) kinin receptor mediates inflammatory hypernociception dependent on prostanoids and sympathetic amines, through a cytokine-independent mechanism. On the other hand, in LPS-primed mice, the B(1) kinin receptor mediates hypernociception by a mechanism dependent on TNF-alpha and IL-1beta, which could stimulate prostanoid and sympathetic amine production.

Multifunctional effects of bradykinin on glial cells in relation to potential anti-inflammatory effects.

Kinins have been reported to be produced and act at the site of injury and inflammation. Despite many reports that they are likely to initiate a particular cascade of inflammatory events, bradykinin (BK) has anti-inflammatory effects in the brain mediated by glial cells. In the present review, we have attempted to describe the complex responses and immediate reaction of glial cells to BK. Glial cells express BK receptors and induce Ca(2+)-dependent signal cascades. Among them, production of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), via B(1) receptors in primary cultured microglia, has a negative feedback effect on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) via increasing intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). In addition, BK up-regulates the production of neurotrophic factors such as nerve growth factor (NGF) via B(2) receptors in astrocytes. These results suggest that BK may have anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in the brain through multiple functions on glial cells. These observations may help to understand the paradox on the role of kinins in the central nervous system and may be useful for therapeutic strategy.

Dynorphin A activates bradykinin receptors to maintain neuropathic pain.

Dynorphin A is an endogenous opioid peptide that produces non-opioid receptor-mediated neural excitation. Here we demonstrate that dynorphin induces calcium influx via voltage-sensitive calcium channels in sensory neurons by activating bradykinin receptors. This action of dynorphin at bradykinin receptors is distinct from the primary signaling pathway activated by bradykinin and underlies the hyperalgesia produced by pharmacological administration of dynorphin by the spinal route in rats and mice. Blockade of spinal B1 or B2 receptor also reverses persistent neuropathic pain but only when there is sustained elevation of endogenous spinal dynorphin, which is required for maintenance of neuropathic pain. These data reveal a mechanism for endogenous dynorphin to promote pain through its agonist action at bradykinin receptors and suggest new avenues for therapeutic intervention.

Systemic inhibition of the angiotensin-converting enzyme limits lipopolysaccharide-induced lung neutrophil recruitment through both bradykinin and angiotensin II-regulated pathways.

Recruitment of neutrophils to the lung is a sentinel event in acute lung inflammation. Identifying mechanisms that regulate neutrophil recruitment to the lung may result in strategies to limit lung damage and improve clinical outcomes. Recently, the renin angiotensin system (RAS) has been shown to regulate neutrophil influx in acute inflammatory models of cardiac, neurologic, and gastrointestinal disease. As a role for the RAS in LPS-induced acute lung inflammation has not been described, we undertook this study to examine the possibility that the RAS regulates neutrophil recruitment to the lung after LPS exposure. Pretreatment of mice with the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor enalapril, but not the anti-hypertensive hydralazine, decreased pulmonary neutrophil recruitment after exposure to LPS. We hypothesize that inhibition of LPS-induced neutrophil accumulation to the lung with enalapril occurred through both an increase in bradykinin, and a decrease in angiotensin II (ATII), mediated signaling. Bradykinin receptor blockade reversed the inhibitory effect of enalapril on neutrophil recruitment. Similarly, pretreatment with bradykinin receptor agonists inhibited IL-8-induced neutrophil chemotaxis and LPS-induced neutrophil recruitment to the lung. Inhibition of ATII-mediated signaling, with the ATII receptor 1a inhibitor losartan, decreased LPS-induced pulmonary neutrophil recruitment, and this was suggested to occur through decreased PAI-1 levels. LPS-induced PAI-1 levels were diminished in animals pretreated with losartan and in those deficient for the ATII receptor 1a. Taken together, these results suggest that ACE regulates LPS-induced pulmonary neutrophil recruitment via modulation of both bradykinin- and ATII-mediated pathways, each regulating neutrophil recruitment by separate, but distinct, mechanisms.

Pharmacologic targets and prototype therapeutics in the kallikrein-kinin system: bradykinin receptor agonists or antagonists.

The kallikrein-kinin system (KKS) is a complex system produced in various organs. This system includes kininogen (precursor for kinin), kallikreins, and pharmacologically active bradykinin (BK), which is considered to be proinflammatory and/or cardioprotective. It is a proinflammatory polypeptide that is involved in many pathological conditions and can cause pain, inflammation, increased vascular permeability, vasodilation, contraction of various smooth muscles, as well as cell proliferation. On the other hand, it has been shown that BK has cardioprotective effects, as all components of KKS are located in the cardiac muscles. Numerous observations have indicated that decreased activity of this system may lead to cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension, cardiac failure, and myocardial infarction. BK acts on two receptors, B1 and B2, which are linked physiologically through their natural stimuli and their common participation in a variety of inflammatory responses. Recently, numerous BK antagonists have been developed in order to treat several diseases that are due to excessive BK formation. Although BK has many beneficial effects, it has been recognized to have some undesirable effects that can be reversed with BK antagonists. In addition, products of this system have multiple interactions with other important metabolic pathways, such as the renin-angiotensin system.

Advances in the development of bradykinin receptor ligands.

Kinins are blood-derived local-acting peptides that elicit specific cellular effects via the stimulation of two related G protein coupled receptors. While the B(2)receptor subtype, constitutively expressed in various tissues, is believed to mediate most of the physiological actions of kinins in healthy conditions, the B(1) receptor, highly regulated during inflammation, has been associated with the sustained actions of these peptides in various pathological situations. Potent peptide and nonpeptide modulators of both kinin receptors have been produced as pharmacological tools and potential therapeutics over the last three decades. More recently, the accumulating evidence suggesting that B(1) receptor blockade could be useful for the treatment of pain and inflammatory disorders has led to a shift in drug development efforts toward the synthesis of orally bioavailable nonpeptide B(1) receptor antagonists. Nonpeptide ligands of either receptor subtype produced by several industrial organizations often possess significant structural commonalities that can lead to the definition of a pharmacophore, especially when the receptor docking models are compared. The field of kinin receptors ligands research has reached an exciting step of its history, as the near future will reveal whether these molecules are therapeutically beneficial in various human diseases. This review will concisely summarize our current understanding of the biology of kinins and their receptors, before discussing the recent medicinal chemistry developments and challenges that bring new kinin receptor ligands closer to clinical applications.

Activation of splanchnic and pelvic colonic afferents by bradykinin in mice.

BACKGROUND: Lumbar splanchnic (LSN) and sacral pelvic (PN) nerves convey different mechanosensory information from the colon to the spinal cord. Here, we determined whether these pathways differ also in their chemosensitivity to bradykinin. METHODS: Using a novel in vitro mouse colon preparation, serosal afferents were recorded from the LSN and PN and distinguished based on their mechanosensitivity to von Frey filaments (70-4000 mg) and insensitivity to colonic stretch (1-5 g) or fine mucosal stroking (10 mg). Bradykinin was applied into a ring around mechanoreceptive fields. RESULTS: The LSN and PN afferents had different dynamic responses to mechanical stimuli: PN afferents required lower intensity stimuli, evoked larger responses, and displayed more maintained responses than LSN afferents. Bradykinin (1 micromol L-1) excited 66% (27 of 41) of LSN afferents. Responses to probing were potentiated after bradykinin. The concentration-dependent (EC50: 0.16 micromol L-1) response was reversed by the B2-receptor antagonist HOE-140 (10 nmol L-)). Twelve bradykinin responsive afferents were mechanically insensitive. More LSN serosal afferents responded to bradykinin than PN afferents (11%, P<0.001) , with larger responses (P<0.05). No mechanically insensitive PN afferents were recruited by bradykinin. CONCLUSIONS: Bradykinin potently stimulates most splanchnic serosal afferents via B2-receptors, but few pelvic afferents. Mechanically insensitive afferents recruited by bradykinin are exclusive to the LSN.

Targeting kinin receptors for the treatment of neurological diseases.

Kinins (bradykinin, kallidin and their active metabolites) are peptide autacoids with established functions in cardiovascular homeostasis, contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles, inflammation and nociception. They are believed to play a role in disease states like asthma, allergies, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, diabetes, endotoxic and pancreatic shock, and to contribute to the therapeutic effects of ACE inhibitors in cardiovascular diseases. Although kinins are also neuromediators in the central nervous system, their involvement in neurological diseases has not been intensively investigated thus far. This review analyzes the potential of central kinin receptors as therapeutic targets for neurological disorders. Initial data highlight potential roles for B(1) receptor antagonists as antiepileptic agents, and for B(2) receptor antagonists (and/or B(1) agonists) in the treatment of stroke. Functional B(1) receptors located on T-lymphocytes and on the blood brain-barrier are also putative targets for the management of multiple sclerosis. However, successful elucidation of the therapeutic value of these new pharmacological approaches will require refinement of our knowledge on the physiology and cellular localization of central kinin receptors.

Therapeutic prospects for bradykinin receptor agonists in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.

Kinins are located in the vascular smooth muscle and the heart, and are the most potent biologically active polypeptides. Pharmacological studies of cardiovascular disorders, including hypertension, cardiac failure, ischemia, myocardial infarction and left ventricular hypertrophy, indicate that reduced activity of the local kallikrein-kinin system (KKS) may be instrumental in the induction of these disorders. The ability of kallikrein gene delivery and bradykinin (BK) B2 receptor agonists to produce a wide spectrum of beneficial effects make them excellent candidate therapies for the treatment of hypertension, and cardiovascular and renal diseases. In addition, strategies that activate kinin receptors may be applicable to the treatment of cardiovascular and renal disorders. However, one major challenge of this approach is the unanswered question of whether there is a sufficiently safe therapeutic index between the potential cardioprotective and pro-inflammatory effects following administration of BK B2 receptor agonists.

Correlation between brain bradykinin receptor binding sites and cardiovascular function in young and adult spontaneously hypertensive rats.

Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) effects of bradykinin (BK) B(1) and B(2) receptor agonists and antagonists were assessed on mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR) in awake unrestrained spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR, aged of 8 and 16 weeks) and age-matched Wistar Kyoto rats (WKY). Quantitative in vitro autoradiographic studies were also performed on the brain of both strains with specific radioligands for B(2) receptors [(125)I]HPP-Hoe 140 and B(1) receptors [(125)I]HPP-des-Arg(10) and Hoe140. MAP increased linearly with doses of BK (81-8100 pmol) and the amplitudes were significantly greater in SHR, particularly at 16 weeks. While BK evoked a negative linear trend on HR (bradycardia) in WKY, a positive one (tachycardia) was observed in adult SHR. In both strains, BK-induced pressor response was blocked by equimolar doses of B(2) receptor antagonist, D-Arg-[Hyp(3), Thi(5), D-Tic(7), Oic(8)]-BK (Hoe 140), but not by B(1) receptor antagonist, AcLys[D-betaNal(7), Ile(8)]des-Arg(9)-BK (R-715). B(1) receptor agonists (Sar-[D-Phe(8)]-des-Arg(9)-BK, des-Arg(9)-BK, des-Arg(10)-Kallidin) and antagonist (R-715 alone or with Hoe 140) had no or marginal effect on MAP and HR at doses up to 8100 pmol in SHR and WKY. Higher densities of specific [(125)I]HPP-Hoe 140 labelling were found in discrete brain areas of SHR, especially in regions associated with cardiovascular function. Low levels of [(125)I]HPP-[des-Arg(10)]-Hoe140 binding sites were seen in WKY and SHR, yet densities were significantly greater in midbrain and cortical regions of SHR aged of 16 weeks. Contrary to SHR, ageing caused a downregulation of B(2) and B(1) receptor binding sites in specific brain nuclei in WKY. It is concluded that the hypersensitivity of the pressor response to i.c.v. BK in SHR occurs during both the early and established phases of hypertension in parallel with the enhancement of B(2) receptor binding sites in various cardiovascular brain centres. In contrast, brain B(1) receptors do not seem to participate in the central pressor effects of kinins nor in the maintenance of hypertension in SHR.

[Bradykinin receptors: towards new pathophysiological roles]. / Les récepteurs de la bradykinine: de nouveaux rôles physio- pathologiques.

In addition to being a pro-inflammatory mediator, bradykinin is now recognized as a neuromediator and regulator of several vascular and renal functions. New breakthroughs point to unusual and atypical signalling pathways for a G-protein coupled receptor that could explain the anti-proliferative and anti-fibrogenic effects of bradykinin. The availability of transgenic and knock out animal models for bradykinin receptors or bradykinin-synthesizing or -catabolic enzymes confirms these cardiac and renal protective roles for this peptide system. Bradykinin receptors are involved in the therapeutic action of angiotensin-1 converting enzyme inhibitors that are used in the treatment of arterial hypertension, heart failure and diabetes. Nevertheless, recent evidence highlights dissimilar mechanisms in the regulation and function of these receptors between the central nervous system and peripheral tissues. Therefore, the development of more specific bradykinin receptor agonists or antagonists devoid of central actions seems to evolve as a new therapeutic approach.

Identification and characterisation of GPR100 as a novel human G-protein-coupled bradykinin receptor.

G-protein-coupled receptor 100 (GPR100) was discovered by searching the human genome database for novel G-protein-coupled peptide receptors. Full-length GPR100 was amplified from a cDNA library of the neuroendocrine cell line BON, which is derived from a human pancreas carcinoid. The open-reading frame, present on a single exon, coded for a protein of 374 amino acids with highest sequence identity (43%) to the human orphan somatostatin- and angiotensin-like peptide receptor. The analysis of chromosomal localisation mapped the GPR100 gene to chromosome 1q21.2-q21.3. The stable expression of GPR100 in Chinese hamster ovary cells together with aequorin as calcium sensor and the promiscuous G-protein subunit alpha16 as signal transducer revealed bradykinin and kallidin as effectors to elicit a calcium response. Dose-response curves yielded EC50 values for both ligands in the low nanomolar range, while the respective analogues without arginine at the carboxy-terminus were inactive. Calcium mobilisation was inhibited by the phospholipase C blocker U73122, but not by pertussis toxin, suggesting the involvement of the G-protein subunit alphaq and not alphai or alphao in signal transduction. In line with the main function of kinins as peripheral hormones, we found that GPR100 was expressed predominantly in tissues like pancreas, heart, skeletal muscle, salivary gland, bladder, kidney, liver, placenta, stomach, jejunum, thyroid gland, ovary, and bone marrow, but smaller amounts were also detected in the brain and in cell lines derived from tumours of various origins.

Wortmannin alters the intracellular trafficking of the bradykinin B2 receptor: role of phosphoinositide 3-kinase and Rab5.

Wortmannin reportedly induces the formation of enlarged cytoplasmic endosomes. Such vesicles were observed in a definite time window after wortmannin treatment (250 nM) in HEK-293 cells stably expressing a B2R (B2 receptor)--green fluorescent protein conjugate and other cell types. The alternative PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) inhibitor LY 294002 (100 microM) and a dominant-negative form of the enzyme (p85alpha DeltaiSH2) induce a more modest vesicle enlargement. PI3K inhibition by drugs did not affect agonist-induced [3H]arachidonate release. The wortmannin-induced formation of giant endosomes also involves Rab5 activity, since a dominant-negative form of this GTPase (Rab5 S34N) partially inhibits the wortmannin effect and a constitutively active form of Rab5 (Rab5 Q79L) induces the formation of enlarged endosomes. Moreover, agonist stimulation targeted B2R-green fluorescent protein towards the periphery of the giant vesicles and led to partial receptor degradation only in wortmannin-treated cells. Receptor degradation was decreased by protease inhibitors and by bafilomycin A1, a drug that inhibits lysosome function. Accumulation of fluorescent material inside the enlarged endosomes was observed in cells treated with bafilomycin A1, wortmannin and an agonist. [3H]Bradykinin binding was decreased in HEK-293 cells treated with both wortmannin and the agonist, but not with either separately. Furthermore, a wortmannin-induced functional down-regulation of B2R was observed in rabbit jugular veins after repeated agonist stimulation (contractility assay). This is the first report of a G-protein-coupled receptor down-regulation induced by an alteration of its usual routing in the cell. These results suggest that both PI3K and Rab5 influence B2R intracellular trafficking.

The therapeutic potential of bradykinin B2 receptor agonists in the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

The nonapeptide bradykinin (BK) is a Janus-faced hormone, which exerts pathophysiological as well as pronounced beneficial physiological effects, mainly by stimulation of BK B(2) receptors. In various animal models and in humans it has been shown that the stimulation of BK B(2) receptors is not only implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammation, pain and tissue injury but also in powerful cardioprotective mechanisms. Either exogenous administration of BK or locally increased BK concentrations as a consequence of the inhibition of its metabolic breakdown by angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, reveal the significant contribution of BK in powerful cardioprotective mechanisms. These are mainly triggered by the synthesis and release of the vasorelaxant, anti-hypertrophic and anti-atherosclerotic endothelial mediators nitric oxide, prostaglandins and tissue-type plasminogen activator, by ischaemic preconditioning and by an increase in insulin sensitivity. Consequently, BK B(2) receptor agonists may have important clinical value in the treatment and prevention of various cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, ischaemic heart disease, left ventricular hypertrophy, ventricular remodelling and congestive heart failure as well as diabetic disorders by mimicking the reported beneficial effects of BK. However, none of the currently known potent and selective peptide and non-peptide agonists of BK B(2) receptors--RMP-7 (lobradamil, Cereport; Alkermes), JMV-1116 (Fournier), FR-190997 (Fujisawa) and FR-191413 (Fujisawa)--have been selected for a clinical assessment in cardiovascular indications. One major challenge of this approach is the still unanswered question of whether there is a sufficient safe therapeutic window between potential cardioprotective and pro-inflammatory effects following BK B(2) receptor agonism.