Overcoming dormancy of Senna multijuga seeds with an ultrasonic probe the comparison with ultrasound and sulfuric acid baths / Superação da dormência de sementes de Senna multijuga com sonda ultrassônica e a comparação com banho de ultrassom e ácido sulfúrico

Understanding germination is extremely important for the production of seedlings that are used in revegetation of degraded areas. Some species enter dormancy as a survival strategy to overcome adverse environmental conditions. Their seeds germinate only when this process is interrupted, which can occur naturally when the conditions become more favorable for the survival of the species or by induction. Studies showed that ultrasound can increase the germination rate of seeds. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of an ultrasound probe and compare it with other methodologies implemented for seed germination of Senna multijuga (Rich.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby, a species used in revegetation of degraded areas. The experiment evaluated the effect of the ultrasonic probe at different powers on seeds that were placed to germinate in a gerbox on paper moistened with distilled water. Ninety-five percent of seeds treated with ultrasound and only 14% of non-treated seeds (control) germinated. There was no significant difference in the germination among the treatments with different powers. The speed of germination index (SGI) reached 4.7 in seeds that underwent the treatment, and 0.6 in the control group. From the results it is possible to conclude that the ultrasound probe is an efficient treatment to accelerate seed germination in this species; and consequently, contributed to production of a greater number of seedlings to be used in revegetation of degraded areas in a short period of time.(AU)

Entender a germinação é extremamente importante para produção de mudas utilizadas na revegetação de áreas degradadas. Algumas espécies são consideradas dormentes por apresentarem uma estratégia de sobrevivência para superar condições ambientais adversas. Essas sementes germinam apenas quando esse processo é interrompido, o que pode ocorrer naturalmente quando as condições se tornam mais favoráveis para a sobrevivência da espécie ou de forma induzida. Estudos demonstram que o ultrassom pode aumentar a taxa de germinação das sementes. Esse trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito da sonda ultrassom e compará-la com outras metodologias utilizadas para a germinação de sementes de Senna multijuga (Rich.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby, espécie utilizada na revegetação de áreas degradadas. O experimento avaliou o efeito da sonda de ultrassom em diferentes potências sobre as sementes, que foram colocadas para germinar em gerbox sobre papel umedecido com água destilada. Das sementes que sofreram o tratamento com a sonda de ultrassom 95% germinaram, já das que não sofreram nenhum tratamento apenas 14% delas germinaram. Não houve diferença significativa entre as diferentes potências avaliadas. O índice de velocidade de germinação (IVG) chegou a 4,7 em sementes que sofreram o tratamento e 0,6 no grupo controle. A partir dos resultados é possível concluir que a sonda de ultrassom é um tratamento eficiente para acelerar a germinação de sementes desta espécie e, consequentemente, contribuir para produção de um maior número de mudas em curto período para serem utilizadas na revegetação de áreas degradadas.(AU)

Ecofisiologia da germinação de fedegoso Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby / Germination ecophysiology of fedegoso Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby

Objetivou-se com esse trabalho avaliar a germinação das sementes de Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby em diferentes condições ambientais. Para isso, foram realizados quatro experimentos: 1 - avaliação de diferentes métodos de superação de dormência (escarificação manual com lixa; imersão em ácido sulfúrico por 1, 5 e 10 minutos; imersão em água quente (95°C) por 1, 5 e 10 minutos; e tratamento controle); 2 - avaliação da germinação em diferentes temperaturas (20, 25, 30 e 35 ºC); 3 - influência de soluções aquosas com diferentes níveis pH (3,0; 5,0; 7,0; 9,0; e 11,0) na germinação; 4 – influência dos sais NaCl, KCl e CaCl2 nas concentrações 0, 25, 50, 75 e 100 mM no processo germinativo. Onde todos os tratamentos foram testados no fotoperíodo de 12 horas. Os parâmetros avaliados foram à porcentagem de germinação e IVG. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições de 50 sementes para cada tratamento. Os dados dos tratamentos de superação de dormência foram submetidos ao teste de médias através do software Sisvar, pelo teste Tukey a nível de 5% de probabilidade. Os dados de temperatura, pH e estresse salino foram submetidos à análise de regressão utilizando o software Sigmaplot 10.0 e o modelo de regressão escolhido foi baseado na significância dos coeficientes da equação de regressão e determinação a 5% de probabilidade. Os resultados mostraram que o melhor método para superação da dormência de sementes foi à imersão ácido sulfúrico por 10 minutos. A temperatura ótima para porcentagem de germinação e IVG foi de 25°C. A germinação ocorreu em todas as faixas de pH analisadas, porém decrescendo com o aumento do pH. O tratamento realizado com estresse salino afetou negativamente a germinação das sementes, tendo os piores resultados na solução salina de CaCl2 na concentração de 50 mM.

The objective of this work was to evaluate the germination of Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby seeds in different environmental conditions. Four experiments were carried out: 1 – evaluation of different methods to overcome seed dormancy (manual scarification with sandpaper; immersion in sulfuric acid for 1, 5 and 10 minutes; immersion in hot water (95 °C) for 1, 5 and 10 minutes and control treatment); 2 – evaluation of germination at different temperatures (20, 25, 30 and 35°C); 3 – Influence of aqueous solutions with different pH levels (3.0, 5.0, 7.0, 9.0 and 11.0) on germination; and 4 – influence of salts NaCl, KCl and CaCl2 at concentrations of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 mM in the germination process. Where all treatments were tested in the 12-hour photoperiod. The evaluated parameters were the percentage of germination and IVG. The experimental design was completely randomized, with four replicates of 50 seeds for each treatment. The data of the dormancy surpass treatments were submitted to the means test using the Sisvar software, using the Tukey test at a 5% probability level. The results showed that the best method to overcome seed dormancy was to immersion sulfuric acid for 10 minutes. The optimum temperature for percentage of germination and IVG was 25 ° C. Germination occurred in all pH ranges analyzed, but decreasing with increasing pH. The treatment with saline stress negatively affected seed germination, with the worst results in 50 mM CaCl2 salt solution.

Ecofisiologia da germinação de fedegoso Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby / Germination ecophysiology of fedegoso Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby

Objetivou-se com esse trabalho avaliar a germinação das sementes de Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby em diferentes condições ambientais. Para isso, foram realizados quatro experimentos: 1 - avaliação de diferentes métodos de superação de dormência (escarificação manual com lixa; imersão em ácido sulfúrico por 1, 5 e 10 minutos; imersão em água quente (95°C) por 1, 5 e 10 minutos; e tratamento controle); 2 - avaliação da germinação em diferentes temperaturas (20, 25, 30 e 35 ºC); 3 - influência de soluções aquosas com diferentes níveis pH (3,0; 5,0; 7,0; 9,0; e 11,0) na germinação; 4 influência dos sais NaCl, KCl e CaCl2 nas concentrações 0, 25, 50, 75 e 100 mM no processo germinativo. Onde todos os tratamentos foram testados no fotoperíodo de 12 horas. Os parâmetros avaliados foram à porcentagem de germinação e IVG. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições de 50 sementes para cada tratamento. Os dados dos tratamentos de superação de dormência foram submetidos ao teste de médias através do software Sisvar, pelo teste Tukey a nível de 5% de probabilidade. Os dados de temperatura, pH e estresse salino foram submetidos à análise de regressão utilizando o software Sigmaplot 10.0 e o modelo de regressão escolhido foi baseado na significância dos coeficientes da equação de regressão e determinação a 5% de probabilidade. Os resultados mostraram que o melhor método para superação da dormência de sementes foi à imersão ácido sulfúrico por 10 minutos. A temperatura ótima para porcentagem de germinação e IVG foi de 25°C. A germinação ocorreu em todas as faixas de pH analisadas, porém decrescendo com o aumento do pH. O tratamento realizado com estresse salino afetou negativamente a germinação das sementes, tendo os piores resultados na solução salina de CaCl2 na concentração de 50 mM.(AU)

The objective of this work was to evaluate the germination of Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby seeds in different environmental conditions. Four experiments were carried out: 1 evaluation of different methods to overcome seed dormancy (manual scarification with sandpaper; immersion in sulfuric acid for 1, 5 and 10 minutes; immersion in hot water (95 °C) for 1, 5 and 10 minutes and control treatment); 2 evaluation of germination at different temperatures (20, 25, 30 and 35°C); 3 Influence of aqueous solutions with different pH levels (3.0, 5.0, 7.0, 9.0 and 11.0) on germination; and 4 influence of salts NaCl, KCl and CaCl2 at concentrations of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 mM in the germination process. Where all treatments were tested in the 12-hour photoperiod. The evaluated parameters were the percentage of germination and IVG. The experimental design was completely randomized, with four replicates of 50 seeds for each treatment. The data of the dormancy surpass treatments were submitted to the means test using the Sisvar software, using the Tukey test at a 5% probability level. The results showed that the best method to overcome seed dormancy was to immersion sulfuric acid for 10 minutes. The optimum temperature for percentage of germination and IVG was 25 ° C. Germination occurred in all pH ranges analyzed, but decreasing with increasing pH. The treatment with saline stress negatively affected seed germination, with the worst results in 50 mM CaCl2 salt solution.(AU)

The Activity of the Antioxidant Defense System of the Weed Species Senna obtusifolia L. and its Resistance to Allelochemical Stress.

Senna obtusifolia L., a common weed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, is able to germinate under adverse environmental conditions, suggesting that this species has efficient stress-adaptation strategies. The aims of the present work were to examine the energy metabolism and the antioxidant defense system of the Senna obtusifolia L. during seed germination and initial growth, and the responses to allelochemical-induced stress. Respiratory activity, the activities of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT),guaicol peroxidase (POD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR), lipoxygenase (LOX) and the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSSG and GSH) were measured. Shortly after seed imbibition, mitochondrial respiratory activity was active and the presence of SOD, CAT, GR and LOX activity in embryos, along with significant KCN-insensitive respiration, indicated that the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is initiated as soon as mitochondrial respiration resumes. Among the fourteen allelochemicals assayed, only coumarin significantly supressed the growth of S. obtusifolia seedlings. Although coumarin reduced the activities of CAT, POD and APX, the GSH, GSSG and MDA levels were not altered. Alpha-pinene, quercetin and ferulic acid did not modify the activity of the antioxidant enzymes or the contents of GSH, GSSH and MDA. Thus the antioxidant defense system of S. obstusifolia may be effective in counteracting the harmful effects of ROS generated during seed germination and initial growth in the presence of toxic allelochemicals.

The genus Senna Mill. (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae) in the Serra Geral of Licínio de Almeida, Bahia, Brazil / O gênero Senna Mill. (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae) na Serra Geral de Licínio de Almeida, Bahia, Brasil

Senna includes about 300 species with circumtropical distribution, widely represented in the Americas, also occurring in Africa, Australia, Asia and Oceania. The genus is represented in Brazil by 80 species, of which 26 are endemic. The Serra Geral de Licínio de Almeida (SGLA), situated in the central portion of the Cadeia do Espinhaço, state of Bahia, Brazil, presents areas relatively little studied, with great potential for the registration of new information about Brazilian biodiversity. The floristic survey of Senna in the SGLA included analysis of specimens collected from February 2012 to October 2013. The analyses were supplemented with dried collections from the following herbaria: ALCB, BHCB, HUEFS, HUNEB, HRB, MBM and SPF.The genus is represented in the study area by 14 taxa, the most representative in the area were: S. silvestris subsp. bifaria var. bifaria, S. macranthera var. striata and S. macranthera var. nervosa, occurring principally in cerrado environments. The taxonomic treatment includes a key for the identification, descriptions, illustrations, photos, data of the geographical distribution, reproductive phenology and comments about the taxa.(AU)

Senna inclui cerca de 300 espécies com distribuição circumtropical, amplamente representadanas Américas, ocorrendo ainda na África, Austrália, Ásia e Oceânia. O gênero está representado no Brasilpor 80 espécies, dentre estas 26 são endêmicas. A Serra Geral de Licínio de Almeida (SGLA), inserida naporção central da Cadeia do Espinhaço, estado da Bahia, Brasil, apresenta áreas relativamente poucoestudadas, com grande potencial para registro de novas informações acerca da biodiversidade brasileira. Olevantamento florístico de Senna na SGLA incluiu análises de espécimes coletados de fevereiro de 2012 aoutubro de 2013. As análises foram complementadas com coleções dos seguintes herbários: ALCB, BHCB,HUEFS, HUNEB, HRB, MBM e SPF. O gênero está representado na área de estudo por 14 táxons, ondeos mais representativos foram: S. silvestris subsp. bifaria var. bifaria, S. macranthera var. striata e S. macrantheravar. nervosa, ocorredo principalmente em ambientes de cerrado. O tratamento taxonômico inclui uma chavepara a identificação, descrições, ilustrações, fotografias, dados de distribuição geográfica, fenologiareprodutiva e comentários sobre os táxons.(AU)

Anti-giardia activity and acute toxicity of a methanol extract of Senna racemosa bark.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Senna racemosa (Mill.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby (syn. Cassia racemosa Mill.) is a plant used in traditional Mayamedicinal practices to treat diarrhea. A methanol extract of S. racemosa bark has been shown to have in vitro activity against Giardia intestinalis. No studies of its efficacy and toxicity in in vivo models have been done. The present study objective was to analyze the activity of this methanol extract of S. racemosa bark against Giardia intestinalis trophozoites in experimentally infected mice, and evaluate its toxicological effects in rats. MATERIAL AND METHODS: S. racemosa was collected in Merida, Yucatan, Mexico (21°58'N, 89°36'W) in June 2005. The bark methanol extract was obtained and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-DAD) was used to generate a constituent profile. In vivo anti-giardia activity was assayed with an experimental model of G. intestinalis infection in neonatal CD-1 mice. Nine doses ranging from 0.25-15mg extract/kg body weight were tested to determine the dose required to kill 50% of the trophozoites (ED50). An acute toxicity assay was run in which one of four single doses (200, 1000, 2000 and3000mg/kg body weight) was orally administered to adult Wistar rats. Animal weight, death rates, toxic effects and behavioral parameters were observed over a 14-d period. They were then euthanized and a necropsy performed. RESULTS: The S. racemosa bark extract inhibited growth of G. intestinalis (ED50=1.14mg/Kg) in neonatal CD-1 mice. No toxic or lethal effects were observed even at the highest dosage (3000mg/Kg), and neither were signs of toxicity observed in internal organs. The active compounds chrysophanol and physcion were present in the extract at a 1.76 ratio. CONCLUSIONS: The results strongly support traditional use of S. racemosa bark for treatment of diarrhea caused by Giardia intestinalis infection.

Croton argenteus preparation inhibits initial growth, mitochondrial respiration and increase the oxidative stress from Senna occidentalis seedlings.

Senna ocidentalis is a weed, native to Brazil, considered to infest crops and plantations, and is responsible for yield losses of several crops, particularly soybean. The aim of this work was to evaluate if the Croton argenteus extract and fractions possess phytotoxic activity on S. ocidentalis. The crude ethanolic extract (CEE) and its hexanic (HF), chloroformic (CLF) and ethyl acetate (EAF) fractions were tested in germination, growth, oxidative stress increase, Adenosine triphosphate, L-malate and succinate synthesis. The crude extract and its fractions slowed down the germination of S. ocidentalis and decreased the final percentage of germination. Oxidative stress was also increased in the seedlings, by an increase of catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase and lipid peroxidation; and it became clear that the ethyl acetate fraction was more phytotoxic. The results indicate that the crude extract and fractions of C. argenteus compromise the mitochondrial energy metabolism, by the inhibition of mitochondrial ATP production, with a decrease in the production of L-malate and succinate. The ethyl acetate fraction of C. argenteus showed high activity on germination and growth, and these effects take place by means of mitochondrial metabolism alterations and increase the oxidative stress, leading the seedling death.

Dynamic extrafloral nectar production: the timing of leaf damage affects the defensive response in Senna mexicana var. chapmanii (Fabaceae).

UNLABELLED: • PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Extrafloral nectar (EFN) mediates food for protection mutualisms between plants and defensive insects. Understanding sources of variation in EFN production is important because such variations may affect the number and identity of visitors and the effectiveness of plant defense. We investigated the influence of plant developmental stage, time of day, leaf age, and leaf damage on EFN production in Senna mexicana var. chapmanii. The observed patterns of variation in EFN production were compared with those predicted by optimal defense theory.• METHODS: Greenhouse experiments with potted plants were conducted to determine how plant age, time of day, and leaf damage affected EFN production. A subsequent field study was conducted to determine how leaf damage, and the resulting increase in EFN production, affected ant visitation in S. chapmanii.• KEY RESULTS: More nectar was produced at night and by older plants. Leaf damage resulted in increased EFN production, and the magnitude of the response was greater in plants damaged in the morning than those damaged at night. Damage to young leaves elicited a stronger defensive response than damage to older leaves, in line with optimal defense theory. Damage to the leaves of S. chapmanii also resulted in significantly higher ant visitation in the field.• CONCLUSIONS: Extrafloral nectar is an inducible defense in S. chapmanii. Developmental variations in its production support the growth differentiation balance hypothesis, while within-plant variations and damage responses support optimal defense theory.

Avaliação in vitro de propriedades biológicas de Senna occidentalis (L) Link / Evaluation of in vitro biological properties of Senna occidentalis (L) Link

Espécies de Senna são amplamente utilizadas por tribos americanas, africanas e indianas, principalmente para tratar a fraqueza, a constipação, as desordens do fígado e também em preparações tópicas para infecções de pele. A Senna occidentalis (L.) Link é um arbusto perene nativo da América do Sul encontrado em regiões tropicais. Este trabalho avaliou a atividade antimicrobiana de extratos aquosos e hidroalcoólicos de diferentes partes da planta. A atividade antimicrobiana foi estabelecida frente aos microrganismos padrões farmacêuticos por espectrofotometria e técnica de microdiluição. A Escherichia coli apresentou sensibilidade apenas a componentes extraídos das sementes, os quais podem ser de natureza proteica. O espectro mais amplo de atividade antimicrobiana foi obtido com o extrato hidroalcoólico das sementes, principalmente contra Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A toxicidade in vitro utilizando fibroblastos de camundongo indicou que este extrato pode ser um ingrediente biocompatível para formulações de uso tópico. Já o extrato hidroalcoólico de partes aéreas demonstrou ser potencialmente citotóxico.(AU)

Senna species have been widely used by American, African and Indian ethic groups mainly in the treatment of feebleness, constipation, liver disorders and skin infections. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link is a perennial shrub native to South America and indigenous to tropical regions throughout the world. Current study evaluated the antimicrobial activity of aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts from S. occidentalis prepared from different parts of the plant. Antimicrobial activity was assessed against standard pharmaceutical microorganisms by spectrophotometry and microdilution technique. Escherichia coli was sensitive only to compounds extracted from seeds which may be proteinaceous. A broader antimicrobial spectrum was demonstrated by the hydroalcoholic extract of seeds, mostly against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The in vitro toxicity using mouse fibroblasts indicated that the extract might be a biocompatible ingredient for topical formulations, while the hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts demonstrated to be potentially cytotoxic.(AU)

Reproduction, pollination and seed predation of Senna multijuga (Fabaceae) in two protected areas in the Brazilian Atlantic forest

One important subject is to determine the effectiveness of conservation areas, where different management categories are being applied, to maintain effective sexual reproduction in plants and their interactions with animal groups. To evaluate this issue, we compared the phenology, reproductive success, pollination and pre-dispersal seed predation of the legume tree Senna multijuga in two differently managed protected areas in Southeastern Brazil: the Itatiaia National Park and the Environmental Protection Area of Serrinha do Alambari, from December 2007 to December 2008. Vegetative and reproductive phenodinamycs were registered monthly in 80 individuals; other evaluations included 104 observation hours for pollination (March-May 2008) in 51 inflorescences; besides, fruit counts, fecundity and seed predation. Sexual reproduction of S. multijuga depends on the transfer of pollen by large bees (Bombus, Centris, Epicharis and Xylocopa), as the species is self-incompatible. Bruchidae species of the genus Acanthoscelides and Sennius predate seeds. Vegetative and reproductive phenodynamics differed among sites. Our results indicated that ecological interactions were lower at the protected area, but the reproductive processes in S. multijuga were not ruptured or critically degraded. This reinforces the idea that landscape areas with intermediate levels of protection, such as environmental protection areas, are suitable as buffer zones, and thus, relevant to the conservation of ecological processes when associated with more strictly protected areas. Rev. Biol. Trop. 59 (4): 1939-1948. Epub 2011 December 01.

Es importante determinar la eficacia de las áreas de conservación cuando se están implementando diferentes categorías de manejo, y una forma de hacerlo es conociendo si se mantiene una reproducción sexual efectiva en las especies de plantas y sus interacciones con grupos de animales. Para evaluar esta cuestión, se comparó la fenología, el éxito reproductivo, la polinización y la pre-dispersión de semillas depredadas de la leguminosa Senna multijuga en dos áreas protegidas sometidas a diferente tipos de manejo en el sureste de Brasil: el Parque Nacional de Itatiaia y el Área de Protección Ambiental de Serrinha de Alambari, de diciembre 2007 a diciembre 2008. La fenodinámica vegetativa y reproductiva fue registrada mensualmente en 80 individuos; otras evaluaciones incluyeron 104 horas de observación de la polinización (marzo-mayo 2008) en 51 inflorescencias, además del conteo de frutos, fecundidad y depredación de semillas. S. multijuga tiene una reproducción sexual que depende de la polinización de abejas grandes (Bombus, Centris, Epicharis y Xylocopa) y se considera una especie auto-incompatible. Las semillas son depredadas por especies de Bruchidae de los géneros Acanthoscelides y Sennius. La fenodinámica vegetativa y reproductiva difirió entre sitios. Nuestros resultados indican que las interacciones ecológicas fueron menores en el área protegida, pero los procesos reproductivos de S. multijuga no se vieron interrumpidos ni degradados de manera crítica. Esto refuerza la idea de que las zonas de paisaje con niveles intermedios de protección, tales como las áreas de protección ambiental, son adecuadas como zonas de amortiguamiento, y por lo tanto, relevantes para la conservación de los procesos ecológicos cuando se asocian con áreas en las que se da una protección más estricta.

Reproduction, pollination and seed predation of Senna multijuga (Fabaceae) in two protected areas in the Brazilian Atlantic forest.

One important subject is to determine the effectiveness of conservation areas, where different management categories are being applied, to maintain effective sexual reproduction in plants and their interactions with animal groups. To evaluate this issue, we compared the phenology, reproductive success, pollination and pre-dispersal seed predation of the legume tree Senna multijuga in two differently managed protected areas in Southeastern Brazil: the Itatiaia National Park and the Environmental Protection Area of Serrinha do Alambari, from December 2007 to December 2008. Vegetative and reproductive phenodinamycs were registered monthly in 80 individuals; other evaluations included 104 observation hours for pollination (March-May 2008) in 51 inflorescences; besides, fruit counts, fecundity and seed predation. Sexual reproduction of S. multijuga depends on the transfer of pollen by large bees (Bombus, Centris, Epicharis and Xylocopa), as the species is self-incompatible. Bruchidae species of the genus Acanthoscelides and Sennius predate seeds. Vegetative and reproductive phenodynamics differed among sites. Our results indicated that ecological interactions were lower at the protected area, but the reproductive processes in S. multijuga were not ruptured or critically degraded. This reinforces the idea that landscape areas with intermediate levels of protection, such as environmental protection areas, are suitable as buffer zones, and thus, relevant to the conservation of ecological processes when associated with more strictly protected areas.