Phylogenetic analyses reveal that simian foamy virus isolated from Japanese Yakushima macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui) is distinct from most of Japanese Hondo macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata).

Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) is an indigenous Old World monkey (OWM) species that inhabits the Japanese archipelago. There are two subspecies of Japanese macaque: Yakushima macaque (M. f. yakui) which inhabits Yakushima Island exclusively, and Hondo macaque (M. f. fuscata) which inhabits the mainland of Japan. Yakushima macaque is considered to be branched off from a certain parental macaque group that had inhabited the mainland of Japan. However, the process of sub-speciation of the Yakushima macaque is still unclear at present. In this study, to gain new insight into the process of sub-speciation of Japanese macaque, we utilized the simian foamy virus (SFV) as a marker. SFVs are found in virtually all primates except humans and undergo species-specific cospeciation with the hosts. The phylogenetic analysis of conserved regions of the env gene in SFVs remarkably resembled that of the OWMs with high statistical confidence. The phylogenetic analyses also indicated that there are four (1-4) genotypes among Asian OWMs investigated. SFVs derived from Asian OWMs except Yakushima macaque were classified as genotypes 1-3, whereas SFVs isolated from all Yakushima macaques and one Hondo macaque were classified as genotype 4. Interestingly, genotype 4 was firstly branched off from the rest of the genotypes, which might indicate that the macaques infected with genotype 4 SFV were derived from the "older" population of Japanese macaques. The high prevalence of genotype 4 SFVs among Yakushima macaque might reflect the possibility that they are a descendant of the population settled earlier, which has been geographically isolated in Yakushima Island.

Eco-Epidemiological Profile and Molecular Characterization of Simian Foamy Virus in a Recently-Captured Invasive Population of Leontopithecus chrysomelas (Golden-Headed Lion Tamarin) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Simian foamy viruses (SFV) infect a wide range of Old World and Neotropical primates (NP). Unlike Old World primates, little is known about the diversity and prevalence of SFV in NP, mainly from a free-living population. Phylogenetic analyses have shown that SFV coevolved with their hosts. However, viral strains infecting Leontopithecus chrysomelas did not behave as expected for this hypothesis. The purpose of this study was to determine the eco-epidemiological profile and molecular characterization of SFV in a recently captured invasive population of L. chrysomelas located in Niteroi/RJ using buccal swab as an alternative collection method. A prevalence of 34.8% (32/92) and a mean viral load of 4.7 log copies of SFV/106 cells were observed. With respect to time since capture, SFV prevalence was significantly higher in the group of animals sampled over 6 months after capture (55.2%) than in those more recently captured (25.4%) (p = 0.005). Infected solitary animals can contribute to SFV transmission between different groups in the population. SFV strains formed two distinct clades within the SFV infecting the Cebidae family. This is the first study to use buccal swabs as a tool to study SFV diversity and prevalence in a recently free-living NP population upon recent capture.

Simian Foamy Viruses in Central and South America: A New World of Discovery.

Foamy viruses (FVs) are the only exogenous retrovirus to date known to infect neotropical primates (NPs). In the last decade, an increasing number of strains have been completely or partially sequenced, and molecular evolution analyses have identified an ancient co-speciation with their hosts. In this review, the improvement of diagnostic techniques that allowed the determination of a more accurate prevalence of simian FVs (SFVs) in captive and free-living NPs is discussed. Determination of DNA viral load in American primates indicates that oral tissues are the viral replicative site and that buccal swab collection can be an alternative to diagnose SFV infection in NPs. Finally, the transmission potential of NP SFVs to primate workers in zoos and primate centers of the Americas is examined.

Potent neutralizing antibodies in humans infected with zoonotic simian foamy viruses target conserved epitopes located in the dimorphic domain of the surface envelope protein.

Human diseases of zoonotic origin are a major public health problem. Simian foamy viruses (SFVs) are complex retroviruses which are currently spilling over to humans. Replication-competent SFVs persist over the lifetime of their human hosts, without spreading to secondary hosts, suggesting the presence of efficient immune control. Accordingly, we aimed to perform an in-depth characterization of neutralizing antibodies raised by humans infected with a zoonotic SFV. We quantified the neutralizing capacity of plasma samples from 58 SFV-infected hunters against primary zoonotic gorilla and chimpanzee SFV strains, and laboratory-adapted chimpanzee SFV. The genotype of the strain infecting each hunter was identified by direct sequencing of the env gene amplified from the buffy coat with genotype-specific primers. Foamy virus vector particles (FVV) enveloped by wild-type and chimeric gorilla SFV were used to map the envelope region targeted by antibodies. Here, we showed high titers of neutralizing antibodies in the plasma of most SFV-infected individuals. Neutralizing antibodies target the dimorphic portion of the envelope protein surface domain. Epitopes recognized by neutralizing antibodies have been conserved during the cospeciation of SFV with their nonhuman primate host. Greater neutralization breadth in plasma samples of SFV-infected humans was statistically associated with smaller SFV-related hematological changes. The neutralization patterns provide evidence for persistent expression of viral proteins and a high prevalence of coinfection. In conclusion, neutralizing antibodies raised against zoonotic SFV target immunodominant and conserved epitopes located in the receptor binding domain. These properties support their potential role in restricting the spread of SFV in the human population.

STLV-1 co-infection is correlated with an increased SFV proviral load in the peripheral blood of SFV/STLV-1 naturally infected non-human primates.

Simian T-Leukemia Virus type 1 and Simian Foamy Virus infect non-human primates. While STLV-1, as HTLV-1, causes Adult T-cell Leukemia/lymphoma, SFV infection is asymptomatic. Both retroviruses can be transmitted from NHPs to humans through bites that allow contact between infected saliva and recipient blood. Because both viruses infect CD4+ T-cells, they might interfere with each other replication, and this might impact viral transmission. Impact of STLV-1 co-infection on SFV replication was analyzed in 18 SFV-positive/STLV-1-negative and 18 naturally SFV/STLV-1 co-infected Papio anubis. Even if 9 animals were found STLV-1-positive in saliva, STLV-1 PVL was much higher in the blood. SFV proviruses were detected in the saliva of all animals. Interestingly, SFV proviral load was much higher in the blood of STLV-1/SFV co-infected animals, compared to STLV-1-negative animals. Given that soluble Tax protein can enter uninfected cells, we tested its effect on foamy virus promoter and we show that Tax protein can transactivate the foamy LTR. This demonstrates that true STLV-1 co-infection or Tax only has an impact on SFV replication and may influence the ability of the virus to be zoonotically transmitted as well as its ability to promote hematological abnormalities.

Isolation and sequence analysis of a novel rhesus macaque foamy virus isolate with a serotype-1-like env.

SFVmmu-DPZ9524 represents the third completely sequenced rhesus macaque simian foamy virus (SFV) isolate, alongside SFVmmu_K3T with a similar SFV-1-type env, and R289HybAGM with a SFV-2-like env. Sequence analysis demonstrates that, in gag and pol, SFVmmu-DPZ9524 is more closely related to R289HybAGM than to SFVmmu_K3T, which, outside of env, is more similar to a Japanese macaque isolate than to the other two rhesus macaque isolates SFVmmu-DPZ9524 and R289HybAGM. Further, we identify bel as another recombinant locus in R289HybAGM, confirming that recombination contributes to sequence diversity in SFV.

Clinical Signs and Blood Test Results Among Humans Infected With Zoonotic Simian Foamy Virus: A Case-Control Study.

Background: A spillover of simian foamy virus (SFV) to humans, following bites from infected nonhuman primates (NHPs), is ongoing in exposed populations. These retroviruses establish persistent infections of unknown physiological consequences to the human host. Methods: We performed a case-control study to compare 24 Cameroonian hunters infected with gorilla SFV and 24 controls matched for age and ethnicity. A complete physical examination and blood test were performed for all participants. Logistic regression and Wilcoxon signed rank tests were used to compare cases and controls. Results: The cases had significantly lower levels of hemoglobin than the controls (median, 12.7 vs 14.4 g/dL; P = .01). Basophil levels were also significantly lower in cases than controls, with no differences for other leukocyte subsets. Cases had significantly higher urea, creatinine, protein, creatinine phosphokinase, and lactate dehydrogenase levels and lower bilirubin levels than controls. Cases and controls had similar frequencies of general, cutaneous, gastrointestinal, neurological, and cardiorespiratory signs. Conclusions: The first case-control study of apparently healthy SFV-infected Cameroonian hunters showed the presence of hematological abnormalities. A thorough clinical and laboratory workup is now needed to establish the medical relevance of these observations because more than half of cases had mild or moderate anemia. Clinical Trials Registration: NCT03225794.

Zoonotic infection of Brazilian primate workers with New World simian foamy virus.

Simian foamy viruses (SFVs) are retroviruses present in nearly all nonhuman primates (NHPs), including Old World primates (OWP) and New World primates (NWP). While all confirmed human infections with SFV are from zoonotic transmissions originating from OWP, little is known about the zoonotic transmission potential of NWP SFV. We conducted a longitudinal, prospective study of 56 workers occupationally exposed to NWP in Brazil. Plasma from these workers was tested using Western blot (WB) assays containing NWP SFV antigens. Genomic DNA from blood and buccal swabs was analyzed for the presence of proviral SFV sequences by three nested PCR tests and a new quantitative PCR assay. Exposure histories were obtained and analyzed for associations with possible SFV infection. Ten persons (18%) tested seropositive and two persons were seroindeterminate (3.6%) for NWP SFV. Six persons had seroreactivity over 2-3 years suggestive of persistent infection. All SFV NWP WB-positive workers reported at least one incident involving NWP, including six reporting NWP bites. NWP SFV viral DNA was not detected in the blood or buccal swabs from all 12 NWP SFV seroreactive workers. We also found evidence of SFV seroreversion in three workers suggestive of possible clearance of infection. Our findings suggest that NWP SFV can be transmitted to occupationally-exposed humans and can elicit specific humoral immune responses but infection remains well-controlled resulting in latent infection and may occasionally clear.

Dual Simian Foamy Virus/Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Infections in Persons from Côte d'Ivoire.

Zoonotic transmission of simian retroviruses in West-Central Africa occurring in primate hunters has resulted in pandemic spread of human immunodeficiency viruses (HIVs) and human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs). While simian foamy virus (SFV) and simian T- lymphotropic virus (STLV)-like infection were reported in healthy persons exposed to nonhuman primates (NHPs) in West-Central Africa, less is known about the distribution of these viruses in Western Africa and in hospitalized populations. We serologically screened for SFV and STLV infection using 1,529 specimens collected between 1985 and 1997 from Côte d'Ivoire patients with high HIV prevalence. PCR amplification and analysis of SFV, STLV, and HIV/SIV sequences from PBMCs was used to investigate possible simian origin of infection. We confirmed SFV antibodies in three persons (0.2%), two of whom were HIV-1-infected. SFV polymerase (pol) and LTR sequences were detected in PBMC DNA available for one HIV-infected person. Phylogenetic comparisons with new SFV sequences from African guenons showed infection likely originated from a Chlorocebus sabaeus monkey endemic to Côte d'Ivoire. 4.6% of persons were HTLV seropositive and PCR testing of PBMCs from 15 HTLV seroreactive persons identified nine with HTLV-1 and one with HTLV-2 LTR sequences. Phylogenetic analysis showed that two persons had STLV-1-like infections, seven were HTLV-1, and one was an HTLV-2 infection. 310/858 (53%), 8/858 (0.93%), and 18/858 (2.1%) were HIV-1, HIV-2, and HIV-positive but undifferentiated by serology, respectively. No SIV sequences were found in persons with HIV-2 antibodies (n = 1) or with undifferentiated HIV results (n = 7). We document SFV, STLV-1-like, and dual SFV/HIV infection in Côte d'Ivoire expanding the geographic range for zoonotic simian retrovirus transmission to West Africa. These findings highlight the need to define the public health consequences of these infections. Studying dual HIV-1/SFV infections in immunocompromised populations may provide a new opportunity to better understand SFV pathogenicity and transmissibility in humans.

An expanded search for simian foamy viruses (SFV) in Brazilian New World primates identifies novel SFV lineages and host age-related infections.

BACKGROUND: While simian foamy viruses have co-evolved with their primate hosts for millennia, most scientific studies have focused on understanding infection in Old World primates with little knowledge available on the epidemiology and natural history of SFV infection in New World primates (NWPs). To better understand the geographic and species distribution and evolutionary history of SFV in NWPs we extend our previous studies in Brazil by screening 15 genera consisting of 29 NWP species (140 monkeys total), including five genera (Brachyteles, Cacajao, Callimico, Mico, and Pithecia) not previously analyzed. Monkey blood specimens were tested using a combination of both serology and PCR to more accurately estimate prevalence and investigate transmission patterns. Sequences were phylogenetically analyzed to infer SFV and host evolutionary histories. RESULTS: The overall serologic and molecular prevalences were 42.8 and 33.6 %, respectively, with a combined assay prevalence of 55.8 %. Discordant serology and PCR results were observed for 28.5 % of the samples, indicating that both methods are currently necessary for estimating NWP SFV prevalence. SFV prevalence in sexually mature NWPs with a positive result in any of the WB or PCR assays was 51/107 (47.7 %) compared to 20/33 (61 %) for immature animals. Epidemiological analyses revealed an increase in SFV prevalence with age in captive Cebus monkeys. Phylogenetic analysis identified novel SFVs in Cacajao, Leontopithecus, and Chiropotes species that had 6-37 % nucleotide divergence to other NWP SFV. Comparison of host and SFV phylogenies showed an overall cospeciation evolutionary history with rare ancient and contemporaneous host-switching for Saimiri and Leontopithecus and Cebus xanthosternos, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We identified novel SFV in four neotropical monkey genera in Brazil and demonstrate that SFV prevalence increases with age in Cebus monkeys. Importantly, our test results suggest that both molecular and serological screening are currently required to accurately determine infection with NWP SFV. Our study significantly expands knowledge of the epidemiology and natural history of NWP SFVs. The tools and information provided in our study will facilitate further investigation of SFV in NWPs and the potential for zoonotic infection with these viruses.

Wide distribution and ancient evolutionary history of simian foamy viruses in New World primates.

BACKGROUND: Although simian foamy viruses (SFV) are the only exogenous retroviruses to infect New World monkeys (NWMs), little is known about their evolutionary history and epidemiology. Previous reports show distinct SFVs among NWMs but were limited to small numbers of captive or wild monkeys from five (Cebus, Saimiri, Ateles, Alouatta, and Callithrix) of the 15 NWM genera. Other studies also used only PCR testing or serological assays with limited validation and may have missed infection in some species. We developed and validated new serological and PCR assays to determine the prevalence of SFV in blood specimens from a large number of captive NWMs in the US (n = 274) and in captive and wild-caught NWMs (n = 236) in Peruvian zoos, rescue centers, and illegal trade markets. Phylogenetic and co-speciation reconciliation analyses of new SFV polymerase (pol) and host mitochondrial cytochrome B sequences, were performed to infer SFV and host co-evolutionary histories. RESULTS: 124/274 (45.2 %) of NWMs captive in the US and 59/157 (37.5 %) of captive and wild-caught NWMs in Peru were SFV WB-positive representing 11 different genera (Alouatta, Aotus, Ateles, Cacajao, Callithrix, Cebus, Lagothrix, Leontopithecus, Pithecia, Saguinus and Saimiri). Seroprevalences were lower at rescue centers (10/53, 18.9 %) compared to zoos (46/97, 47.4 %) and illegal trade markets (3/7, 8/19, 42.9 %) in Peru. Analyses showed that the trees of NWM hosts and SFVs have remarkably similar topologies at the level of species and sub-populations suggestive of co-speciation. Phylogenetic reconciliation confirmed 12 co-speciation events (p < 0.002) which was further supported by obtaining highly similar divergence dates for SFV and host genera and correlated SFV-host branch times. However, four ancient cross-genus transmission events were also inferred for Pitheciinae to Atelidae, Cacajao to ancestral Callithrix or Cebus monkeys, between Callithrix and Cebus monkeys, and Lagothrix to Alouatta. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate a broad distribution and stable co-speciation history of SFV in NWMs at the species level. Additional studies are necessary to further explore the epidemiology and natural history of SFV infection of NWMs and to determine the zoonotic potential for persons exposed to infected monkeys in captivity and in the wild.

Characterization and comparative analysis of a simian foamy virus complete genome isolated from Brazilian capuchin monkeys.

Foamy viruses infect a wide range of placental mammals, including primates. However, despite of great diversity of New World primates, only three strains of neotropical simian foamy viruses (SFV) have been described. Only after 40 years since serological characterization, the complete sequence of an SFVcap strain infecting a family of six capuchin monkeys (Sapajus xanthosternos) was obtained. Co-culture of primate peripheral blood mononuclear cells with Cf2Th canine cells was established and monitored for the appearance of cytopathic effects, PCR amplification of integrated SFV proviral genome and viral reverse transcriptase activity. The novel SFVcap was fully sequenced through a next-generation sequencing protocol. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete genome grouped SFVcap and SFVmar, both infecting primate species of the Cebidae family with a genetic similarity of approximately 85%. Similar ORF sizes were observed among SFV from neotropical primates, and env and pol genes were the most conserved. Neotropical SFV presented the smallest LTRs among exogenous mammalians. The novel SFVcap strain provides a valuable research tool for the FV community.

A Seminomadic Population in Bangladesh with Extensive Exposure to Macaques Does Not Exhibit High Levels of Zoonotic Simian Foamy Virus Infection.

Simian foamy viruses (SVF) are ubiquitous in nonhuman primates (NHP). SFV can be zoonotically transmitted to humans who either work with or live commensally with NHP. We analyzed the blood of 45 Bangladeshi performing monkey owners (an ethnic group called the Bedey) for SFV infection. Surprisingly, a PCR assay failed to detect SFV infection in any of these participants. This is in contrast to our previously reported infection rate of about 5% among Bangladeshi villagers.

Origin, evolution and innate immune control of simian foamy viruses in humans.

Most viral pathogens that have emerged in humans have originated from various animal species. Emergence is a multistep process involving an initial spill-over of the infectious agent into single individuals and its subsequent dissemination into the human population. Similar to simian immunodeficiency viruses and simian T lymphotropic viruses, simian foamy viruses (SFV) are retroviruses that are widespread among non-human primates and can be transmitted to humans, giving rise to a persistent infection, which seems to be controlled in the case of SFV. In this review, we present current data on the discovery, cross-species transmission, and molecular evolution of SFV in human populations initially infected and thus at risk for zoonotic emergence.

Construction of an infectious clone of simian foamy virus of Japanese macaque (SFVjm) and phylogenetic analyses of SFVjm isolates.

Foamy viruses belong to the genus Spumavirus of the family Retroviridae and have been isolated from many mammalian species. It was reported that simian foamy viruses (SFVs) have co-evolved with host species. In this study, we isolated four strains (WK1, WK2, AR1 and AR2) of SFV (named SFVjm) from Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) in main island Honshu of Japan. We constructed an infectious molecular clone of SFVjm strain WK1, termed pJM356. The virus derived from the clone replicated and induced syncytia in human (human embryonic kidney 293T cells), African green monkey (Vero cells) and mouse cell lines (Mus dunni tail fibroblast cells). Phylogenetic analysis also revealed that these four SFVjm strains formed two distinct SFVjm clusters. SFVjm strains WK1 and WK2 and SFV isolated from Taiwanese macaques (Macaca cyclopis) formed one cluster, whereas strains AR1 and AR2 formed the other cluster with SFV isolated from a rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta).

A novel small animal model to study the replication of simian foamy virus in vivo.

Preclinical evaluation in a small animal model would help the development of gene therapies and vaccines based on foamy virus vectors. The establishment of persistent, non-pathogenic infection with the prototype foamy virus in mice and rabbits has been described previously. To extend this spectrum of available animal models, hamsters were inoculated with infectious cell supernatant or bioballistically with a foamy virus plasmid. In addition, a novel foamy virus from a rhesus macaque was isolated and characterised genetically. Hamsters and mice were infected with this new SFVmac isolate to evaluate whether hamsters are also susceptible to infection. Both hamsters and mice developed humoral responses to either virus subtype. Virus integration and replication in different animal tissues were analysed by PCR and co-cultivation. The results strongly indicate establishment of a persistent infection in hamsters. These studies provide a further small animal model for studying FV-based vectors in addition to the established models.

New World simian foamy virus infections in vivo and in vitro.

Foamy viruses (FV) are complex retroviruses that naturally infect all nonhuman primates (NHP) studied to date. Zoonotic transmission of Old World NHP simian foamy viruses (SFV) has been documented, leading to nonpathogenic persistent infections. To date, there have been no reports concerning zoonotic transmission of New World monkey (NWM) SFV to humans and resulting infection. In this study, we developed a Western blot assay to detect antibodies to NWM SFV, a nested PCR assay to detect NWM SFV DNA, and a ß-galactosidase-containing indicator cell line to assay replication of NWM SFV. Using these tools, we analyzed the plasma and blood of 116 primatologists, of whom 69 had reported exposures to NWM. While 8 of the primatologists tested were seropositive for SFV from a NWM, the spider monkey, none had detectable levels of viral DNA in their blood. We found that SFV isolated from three different species of NWM replicated in some, but not all, human cell lines. From our data, we conclude that while humans exposed to NWM SFV produce antibodies, there is no evidence for long-term viral persistence.

Simian foamy virus infection of rhesus macaques in Bangladesh: relationship of latent proviruses and transcriptionally active viruses.

Simian foamy viruses (SFV) are complex retroviruses that are ubiquitous in nonhuman primates (NHP) and are zoonotically transmitted to humans, presumably through NHP saliva, by licking, biting, and other behaviors. We have studied SFV in free-ranging rhesus macaques in Bangladesh. It has been previously shown that SFV in immunocompetent animals replicates to detectable levels only in superficial epithelial cells of the oral mucosa, although latent proviruses are found in most, if not all, tissues. In this study, we compare DNA sequences from latent SFV proviruses found in blood cells of 30 Bangladesh rhesus macaques to RNA sequences of transcriptionally active SFV from buccal swabs obtained from the same animals. Viral strains, defined by differences in SFV gag sequences, from buccal mucosal specimens overlapped with those from blood samples in 90% of animals. Thus, latent proviruses in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) are, to a great extent, representative of viruses likely to be transmitted to other hosts. The level of SFV RNA in buccal swabs varied greatly between macaques, with increasing amounts of viral RNA in older animals. Evidence of APOBEC3-induced mutations was found in gag sequences derived from the blood and oral mucosa.

Viral latency in blood and saliva of simian foamy virus-infected humans.

Simian foamy viruses (SFV) are widespread retroviruses among non-human primates (NHP). SFV actively replicate in the oral cavity and can be transmitted to humans through NHP bites, giving rise to a persistent infection. We aimed at studying the natural history of SFV infection in human. We have analyzed viral load and gene expression in 14 hunters from Cameroon previously shown to be infected with a gorilla SFV strain. Viral DNA could be detected by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (q-PCR) targeting the pol-in region, in most samples of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) (7.1 ± 6.0 SFV DNA copies/105 PBMCs) and saliva (2.4 ± 4.3 SFV DNA copies/105 cells) derived from the hunters. However, quantitative real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT)-qPCR revealed the absence of SFV viral gene expression in both PBMCs and saliva, suggesting that SFV was latent in the human samples. Our study demonstrates that a latent infection can occur in humans and persist for years, both in PBMCs and saliva. Such a scenario may contribute to the putative lack of secondary human-to-human transmissions of SFV.

Identification and characterization of highly divergent simian foamy viruses in a wide range of new world primates from Brazil.

Foamy viruses naturally infect a wide range of mammals, including Old World (OWP) and New World primates (NWP), which are collectively called simian foamy viruses (SFV). While NWP species in Central and South America are highly diverse, only SFV from captive marmoset, spider monkey, and squirrel monkey have been genetically characterized and the molecular epidemiology of SFV infection in NWPs remains unknown. We tested a large collection of genomic DNA (n = 332) comprising 14 genera of NWP species for the presence of SFV polymerase (pol) sequences using generic PCR primers. Further molecular characterization of positive samples was carried out by LTR-gag and larger pol sequence analysis. We identified novel SFVs infecting nine NWP genera. Prevalence rates varied between 14-30% in different species for which at least 10 specimens were tested. High SFV genetic diversity among NWP up to 50% in LTR-gag and 40% in pol was revealed by intragenus and intrafamilial comparisons. Two different SFV strains infecting two captive yellow-breasted capuchins did not group in species-specific lineages but rather clustered with SFVs from marmoset and spider monkeys, indicating independent cross-species transmission events. We describe the first SFV epidemiology study of NWP, and the first evidence of SFV infection in wild NWPs. We also document a wide distribution of distinct SFVs in 14 NWP genera, including two novel co-speciating SFVs in capuchins and howler monkeys, suggestive of an ancient evolutionary history in NWPs for at least 28 million years. A high SFV genetic diversity was seen among NWP, yet these viruses seem able to jump between NWP species and even genera. Our results raise concerns for the risk of zoonotic transmission of NWP SFV to humans as these primates are regularly hunted for food or kept as pets in forest regions of South America.