Evaluating the effects of sodium glucose co-transporter -2 inhibitors from a renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system perspective in patients infected with COVID-19: contextualizing findings from the dapagliflozin in respiratory failure in patients with COVID-19 study.

Numerous studies demonstrate parallels between CVD, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and COVID-19 pathology, which accentuate pre-existing complications in patients infected with COVID-19 and potentially exacerbate the infection course. Antidiabetic drugs such as sodium-glucose transporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors have garnered substantial attention recently due to their efficacy in reducing the severity of cardiorenal disease. The effect of SGLT-2 inhibitors in patients with COVID-19 remains unclear particularly since SGLT-2 inhibitors contribute to altering the RAAS cascade activity, which includes ACE-2, the major cell entry receptor for SARS-CoV2. A study, DARE-19, was carried out to unveil the effects of SGLT-2 inhibitor treatment on comorbid disease complications and concomitant COVID-19 outcomes and demonstrated no statistical significance. However, the need for further studies is essential to provide conclusive clinical findings.

Differential effect of canagliflozin, a sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, on slow and fast skeletal muscles from nondiabetic mice.

There has been a concern that sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors could reduce skeletal muscle mass and function. Here, we examine the effect of canagliflozin (CANA), an SGLT2 inhibitor, on slow and fast muscles from nondiabetic C57BL/6J mice. In this study, mice were fed with or without CANA under ad libitum feeding, and then evaluated for metabolic valuables as well as slow and fast muscle mass and function. We also examined the effect of CANA on gene expressions and metabolites in slow and fast muscles. During SGLT2 inhibition, fast muscle function is increased, as accompanied by increased food intake, whereas slow muscle function is unaffected, although slow and fast muscle mass is maintained. When the amount of food in CANA-treated mice is adjusted to that in vehicle-treated mice, fast muscle mass and function are reduced, but slow muscle was unaffected during SGLT2 inhibition. In metabolome analysis, glycolytic metabolites and ATP are increased in fast muscle, whereas glycolytic metabolites are reduced but ATP is maintained in slow muscle during SGLT2 inhibition. Amino acids and free fatty acids are increased in slow muscle, but unchanged in fast muscle during SGLT2 inhibition. The metabolic effects on slow and fast muscles are exaggerated when food intake is restricted. This study demonstrates the differential effects of an SGLT2 inhibitor on slow and fast muscles independent of impaired glucose metabolism, thereby providing new insights into how they should be used in patients with diabetes, who are at a high risk of sarcopenia.

Sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 and renoprotection: From the perspective of energy regulation and water conservation.

Sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) is a renal low-affinity high-capacity sodium/glucose cotransporter expressed in the apical membrane of the early segment of proximal tubules. SGLT2 reabsorbs filtered glucose in the kidney, and its inhibitors represent a new class of oral medications used for type 2 diabetes mellitus, which act by increasing glucose and sodium excretion in urine, thereby reducing blood glucose levels. However, clinical trials showed marked improvement of renal outcomes, even in nondiabetic kidney diseases, although the underlying mechanism of this renoprotective effect is unclear. We showed that long-term excretion of salt by the kidneys, which predisposes to osmotic diuresis and water loss, induces a systemic body response for water conservation. The energy-intensive nature of water conservation leads to a reprioritization of systemic body energy metabolism. According to current data, use of SGLT2 inhibitors may result in similar reprioritization of energy metabolism to prevent dehydration. In this review article, we discuss the beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibition from the perspective of energy metabolism and water conservation.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibition prevents renal fibrosis in cyclosporine nephropathy.

AIMS: Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, a new class of antidiabetic drugs, are nephroprotective in case of diabetes, but whether a similar beneficial effect may be detectable also in case of chronic non-diabetic kidney diseases remains still unknown. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of empagliflozin, a SGLT-2 inhibitor, on the progression of cyclosporine nephropathy, in the absence of diabetes. METHODS: Sprague Dawley rats (n = 27) have been fed with low-salt diet starting 10 days before the beginning and finished at the end of the experimental period. Cyclosporine-A (CsA, 15 mg/kg/day, intraperitoneal injection, n = 8) and CsA plus empagliflozin (Empa, 10 mg/kg/day, per os, n = 7) were administered for 4 weeks. The control groups were treated with placebo (Control, n = 7) or empagliflozin (Control + Empa, n = 5). Blood pressure (plethysmographic method) was measured at the beginning and at the end of the experimental period. At the end of the experimental protocol, the kidneys were excised for histomorphometric analysis of renal fibrosis and for immunohistochemical evaluation of inflammatory infiltrates (monocytes/macrophages), type I and type IV collagen expression, and tyrosine hydroxylase expression, used as marker of sympathetic nerve activity. RESULTS: CsA-treated rats showed a significant increase (p < 0.01) in blood pressure, which was reduced by administration of empagliflozin (p < 0.05). CsA administration caused an increase in glomerular and tubulo-interstitial fibrosis (p < 0.05), renal inflammatory infiltrates (p < 0.05), type I and type IV collagen expression (p < 0.01), and tyrosine hydroxylase expression (p < 0.01) as compared to the control rats and control + Empa-treated rats. Treatment with empagliflozin in CsA-treated rats reduced glomerular (p < 0.01) and tubulo-interstitial fibrosis (p < 0.05), type I and type IV collagen expression (p < 0.01), inflammatory cell infiltration (p < 0.01) and tyrosine hydroxylase expression (p < 0.05), as compared to rats treated with CsA. CONCLUSION: Empagliflozin administration caused a reduction in blood pressure in CsA-treated rats and showed a protective effect on CsA nephropathy by decreasing renal fibrosis, type I and type IV collagen expression, macrophage infiltration and tyrosine hydroxylase expression. These data suggest that empagliflozin promotes nephroprotection also in non-diabetic kidney disease.

SGLT2 is not expressed in pancreatic α- and ß-cells, and its inhibition does not directly affect glucagon and insulin secretion in rodents and humans.

OBJECTIVE: Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors (SGLT2i), or gliflozins, are anti-diabetic drugs that lower glycemia by promoting glucosuria, but they also stimulate endogenous glucose and ketone body production. The likely causes of these metabolic responses are increased blood glucagon levels, and decreased blood insulin levels, but the mechanisms involved are hotly debated. This study verified whether or not SGLT2i affect glucagon and insulin secretion by a direct action on islet cells in three species, using multiple approaches. METHODS: We tested the in vivo effects of two selective SGLT2i (dapagliflozin, empagliflozin) and a SGLT1/2i (sotagliflozin) on various biological parameters (glucosuria, glycemia, glucagonemia, insulinemia) in mice. mRNA expression of SGLT2 and other glucose transporters was assessed in rat, mouse, and human FACS-purified α- and ß-cells, and by analysis of two human islet cell transcriptomic datasets. Immunodetection of SGLT2 in pancreatic tissues was performed with a validated antibody. The effects of dapagliflozin, empagliflozin, and sotagliflozin on glucagon and insulin secretion were assessed using isolated rat, mouse and human islets and the in situ perfused mouse pancreas. Finally, we tested the long-term effect of SGLT2i on glucagon gene expression. RESULTS: SGLT2 inhibition in mice increased the plasma glucagon/insulin ratio in the fasted state, an effect correlated with a decline in glycemia. Gene expression analyses and immunodetections showed no SGLT2 mRNA or protein expression in rodent and human islet cells, but moderate SGLT1 mRNA expression in human α-cells. However, functional experiments on rat, mouse, and human (29 donors) islets and the in situ perfused mouse pancreas did not identify any direct effect of dapagliflozin, empagliflozin or sotagliflozin on glucagon and insulin secretion. SGLT2i did not affect glucagon gene expression in rat and human islets. CONCLUSIONS: The data indicate that the SGLT2i-induced increase of the plasma glucagon/insulin ratio in vivo does not result from a direct action of the gliflozins on islet cells.

A potential diagnostic problem on the ICU: Euglycaemic diabetic Ketoacidosis associated with SGLT2 inhibition.

Sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are the latest class of oral hypoglycaemic agents approved to treat type II diabetes. Their use is increasing and as such more patients will present to critical care whilst on this treatment. However, there have been several case reports of euglycaemic diabetic ketoacidosis associated with the use of these agents. Under such circumstances the blood glucose is often normal or only moderately elevated and hence the diagnosis may be delayed resulting in inappropriate therapy. In this review we describe a case of SGLT2 mediated ketoacidosis who presented to our intensive care unit, discuss the proposed pathophysiology behind this development of ketoacidosis as well as its potential prevention, management and treatment.

Physiology of renal glucose handling via SGLT1, SGLT2 and GLUT2.

The concentration of glucose in plasma is held within narrow limits (4-10 mmol/l), primarily to ensure fuel supply to the brain. Kidneys play a role in glucose homeostasis in the body by ensuring that glucose is not lost in the urine. Three membrane proteins are responsible for glucose reabsorption from the glomerular filtrate in the proximal tubule: sodium-glucose cotransporters SGLT1 and SGLT2, in the apical membrane, and GLUT2, a uniporter in the basolateral membrane. 'Knockout' of these transporters in mice and men results in the excretion of filtered glucose in the urine. In humans, intravenous injection of the plant glucoside phlorizin also results in excretion of the full filtered glucose load. This outcome and the finding that, in an animal model, phlorizin reversed the symptoms of diabetes, has stimulated the development and successful introduction of SGLT2 inhibitors, gliflozins, in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Here we summarise the current state of our knowledge about the physiology of renal glucose handling and provide background to the development of SGLT2 inhibitors for type 2 diabetes treatment.

Nucleosome Positioning and Gene Regulation of the SGLT2 Gene in the Renal Proximal Tubular Epithelial Cells.

Filtered glucose is mostly reabsorbed by sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) in the proximal tubules. SGLT2 is predominantly expressed in the human kidney. However, the regulatory mechanisms for SGLT2 gene expression in the human kidney remain unclear. We in this work elucidated the transcriptional regulatory mechanisms for the SGLT2 gene by nucleosome occupancy in the SGLT2 promoter region. Expressions of SGLT2 mRNA and protein were markedly weaker in human kidney-derived HK-2 cells than the human kidney. The nucleosome occupancy level in the SGLT2 promoter region was low in the kidney, but high in HK-2 cells. A treatment with a histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA) decreased nucleosome occupancy in the promoter region and increased SGLT2 expression levels in HK-2 cells. The upregulation of SGLT2 expression by histone acetylation was accompanied by a higher binding frequency of hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF) 1α, a transcriptional modulator of SGLT2 in the human kidney, to the promoter region. The transfection of a HNF1α expression plasmid into HK-2 cells resulted in the upregulation of SGLT2 mRNA expression in the presence of TSA, but not in the treatment of dimethylsulfoxide as a control. Nucleosome occupancy in the promoter region was markedly higher in the liver and small intestine than the kidney. Our results indicate that tissue-specific nucleosome occupancy plays an important role in the regulation of SGLT2 gene expression via HNF1α binding at the SGLT2 promoter region.

Renal protection by sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors and its underlying mechanisms in diabetic kidney disease.

AIM: Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the most frequent cause of mortality and morbidity, leading a global health burden. This review will focus on the potential therapeutic interventions using Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors that could prevent the development and progression of DKD. RESULTS: SGLT2 inhibitors have been widely used as anti-diabetic drugs. Recent clinical studies have demonstrated that these drugs, which improve glycemic control and hypertension and decrease body weight, decrease the risk of renal function impairment and heart failure in patients with type 2 diabetes. With regard to long-term clinical outcomes, the Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes (EMPA-REG OUTCOME), the EMPA-REG Renal OUTCOME, and the CANagliflozin cardioVascular Assessment Study (CANVAS) program which have been integrated from CANVAS and CANVAS-Renal (CANVAS-R) trials reported significant risk reductions in primary combined major adverse cardiovascular events. Furthermore, regarding renal outcomes, the EMPA-REG Renal OUTCOME and CANVAS program clearly showed improvements in renal outcomes, including decreases in albuminuria and progression of nephropathy, doubling of serum creatinine levels, and initiation of renal replacement therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Potential mechanisms of SGLT2 inhibitors related to renoprotection can be divided into two categories: hemodynamic actions and metabolic actions.

A more tubulocentric view of diabetic kidney disease.

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a common complication of Diabetes Mellitus (DM) Types 1 and 2, and prevention of end stage renal disease (ESRD) remains a major challenge. Despite its high prevalence, the pathogenesis of DN is still controversial. Initial glomerular disease manifested by hyperfiltration and loss of glomerular size and charge permselectivity may initiate a cascade of injuries, including tubulo-interstitial disease. Clinically, 'microalbuminuria' is still accepted as an early biomarker of glomerular damage, despite mounting evidence that its predictive value for DN is questionable, and findings that suggest the proximal tubule is an important link in the development of DN. The concept of 'diabetic tubulopathy' has emerged from recent studies, and its causative role in DN is supported by clinical and experimental evidence, as well as plausible pathogenetic mechanisms. This review explores the 'tubulocentric' view of DN. The recent finding that inhibition of proximal tubule (PT) glucose transport (via SGLT2) is nephro-protective in diabetic patients is discussed in relation to the tubule's potential role in DN. Studies with a tubulocentric view of DN have stimulated alternative clinical approaches to the early detection of diabetic kidney disease. There are tubular biomarkers considered as direct indicators of injury of the proximal tubule (PT), such as N-acetyl-ß-D-glucosaminidase, Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin and Kidney Injury Molecule-1, and other functional PT biomarkers, such as Urine free Retinol-Binding Protein 4 and Cystatin C, which reflect impaired reabsorption of filtered proteins. The clinical application of these measurements to diabetic patients will be reviewed in the context of the need for better biomarkers for early DN.

Sodium glucose transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibition with empagliflozin improves cardiac diastolic function in a female rodent model of diabetes.

Obese and diabetic individuals are at increased risk for impairments in diastolic relaxation and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. The impairments in diastolic relaxation are especially pronounced in obese and diabetic women and predict future cardiovascular disease (CVD) events in this population. Recent clinical data suggest sodium glucose transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibition reduces CVD events in diabetic individuals, but the mechanisms of this CVD protection are unknown. To determine whether targeting SGLT2 improves diastolic relaxation, we utilized empagliflozin (EMPA) in female db/db mice. Eleven week old female db/db mice were fed normal mouse chow, with or without EMPA, for 5 weeks. Blood pressure (BP), HbA1c and fasting glucose were significantly increased in untreated db/db mice (DbC) (P < 0.01). EMPA treatment (DbE) improved glycemic indices (P < 0.05), but not BP (P > 0.05). At baseline, DbC and DbE had already established impaired diastolic relaxation as indicated by impaired septal wall motion (>tissue Doppler derived E'/A' ratio) and increased left ventricular (LV) filling pressure (

MAP17 Is a Necessary Activator of Renal Na+/Glucose Cotransporter SGLT2.

The renal proximal tubule reabsorbs 90% of the filtered glucose load through the Na+-coupled glucose transporter SGLT2, and specific inhibitors of SGLT2 are now available to patients with diabetes to increase urinary glucose excretion. Using expression cloning, we identified an accessory protein, 17 kDa membrane-associated protein (MAP17), that increased SGLT2 activity in RNA-injected Xenopus oocytes by two orders of magnitude. Significant stimulation of SGLT2 activity also occurred in opossum kidney cells cotransfected with SGLT2 and MAP17. Notably, transfection with MAP17 did not change the quantity of SGLT2 protein at the cell surface in either cell type. To confirm the physiologic relevance of the MAP17-SGLT2 interaction, we studied a cohort of 60 individuals with familial renal glucosuria. One patient without any identifiable mutation in the SGLT2 coding gene (SLC5A2) displayed homozygosity for a splicing mutation (c.176+1G>A) in the MAP17 coding gene (PDZK1IP1). In the proximal tubule and in other tissues, MAP17 is known to interact with PDZK1, a scaffolding protein linked to other transporters, including Na+/H+ exchanger 3, and to signaling pathways, such as the A-kinase anchor protein 2/protein kinase A pathway. Thus, these results provide the basis for a more thorough characterization of SGLT2 which would include the possible effects of its inhibition on colocalized renal transporters.

Renal, metabolic and cardiovascular considerations of SGLT2 inhibition.

The kidney has a pivotal role in maintaining glucose homeostasis by using glucose as a metabolic fuel, by producing glucose through gluconeogenesis, and by reabsorbing all filtered glucose through the sodium-glucose cotransporters SGLT1 and SGLT2 located in the proximal tubule. In patients with diabetes, the maximum glucose reabsorptive capacity (TmG) of the kidney, as well as the threshold for glucose spillage into the urine, are elevated, contributing to the pathogenesis of hyperglycaemia. By reducing the TmG and, more importantly, the threshold of glucosuria, SGLT2 inhibitors enhance glucose excretion, leading to a reduction in fasting and postprandial plasma glucose levels and improvements in both insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity. The beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibition extend beyond glycaemic control, however, with new studies demonstrating that inhibition of renal glucose reabsorption reduces blood pressure, ameliorates glucotoxicity and induces haemodynamic effects that lead to improved cardiovascular and renal outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. In this Review we examine the role of SGLT2 and SGLT1 in the regulation of renal glucose reabsorption in health and disease and the effect of SGLT2 inhibition on renal function, glucose homeostasis, and cardiovascular disease.

Diabetes and kidney disease: the role of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT-2) and SGLT-2 inhibitors in modifying disease outcomes.

Patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) often have coexisting chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, healthy renal function is crucial in maintaining glucose homeostasis, assuring that almost all of the filtered glucose is reabsorbed by the sodium glucose cotransporters (SGLTs) SGLT-1 and SGLT-2. In diabetes, an increased amount of glucose is filtered by the kidneys and SGLT-2 is upregulated, leading to increased glucose absorption and worsening hyperglycemia. Prolonged hyperglycemia contributes to the development of CKD by inducing metabolic and hemodynamic changes in the kidneys. Due to the importance of SGLT-2 in regulating glucose levels, investigation into SGLT-2 inhibitors was initiated as a glucose-dependent mechanism to control hyperglycemia, and there are three agents currently approved for use in the United States: dapagliflozin, canagliflozin, and empagliflozin. SGLT-2 inhibitors have been shown to reduce glycated hemoglobin (A1C), weight, and blood pressure, which not only affects glycemic control, but may also help slow the progression of renal disease by impacting the underlying mechanisms of kidney injury. In addition, SGLT-2 inhibitors have shown reductions in albuminuria, uric acid, and an increase in magnesium. Caution is advised when prescribing SGLT-2 inhibitors to patients with moderately impaired renal function and those at risk for volume depletion and hypotension. Published data on slowing of the development, as well as progression of CKD, is a hopeful indicator for the possible renal protection potential of this drug class. This narrative review provides an in-depth discussion of the interplay between diabetes, SGLT-2 inhibitors, and factors that affect kidney function.

Sodium Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus: Cardiovascular and Kidney Effects, Potential Mechanisms, and Clinical Applications.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, including empagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and canagliflozin, are now widely approved antihyperglycemic therapies. Because of their unique glycosuric mechanism, SGLT2 inhibitors also reduce weight. Perhaps more important are the osmotic diuretic and natriuretic effects contributing to plasma volume contraction, and decreases in systolic and diastolic blood pressures by 4 to 6 and 1 to 2 mm Hg, respectively, which may underlie cardiovascular and kidney benefits. SGLT2 inhibition also is associated with an acute, dose-dependent reduction in estimated glomerular filtration rate by ≈5 mL·min(-1)·1.73 m(-2) and ≈30% to 40% reduction in albuminuria. These effects mirror preclinical observations suggesting that proximal tubular natriuresis activates renal tubuloglomerular feedback through increased macula densa sodium and chloride delivery, leading to afferent vasoconstriction. On the basis of reduced glomerular filtration, glycosuric and weight loss effects are attenuated in patients with chronic kidney disease (estimated glomerular filtration rate <60 mL·min(-1)·1.73 m(-2)). In contrast, blood pressure lowering, estimated glomerular filtration rate, and albuminuric effects are preserved, and perhaps exaggerated in chronic kidney disease. With regard to long-term clinical outcomes, the EMPA-REG OUTCOME trial (Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and established cardiovascular disease randomly assigned to empagliflozin versus placebo reported a 14% reduction in the primary composite outcome of cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke, and >30% reductions in cardiovascular mortality, overall mortality, and heart failure hospitalizations associated with empagliflozin, even though, by design, the hemoglobin A1c difference between the randomized groups was marginal. Aside from an increased risk of mycotic genital infections, empagliflozin-treated patients had fewer serious adverse events, including a lower risk of acute kidney injury. In light of the EMPA-REG OUTCOME results, some diabetes clinical practice guidelines now recommend that SGLT2 inhibitors with proven cardiovascular benefit be prioritized in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who have not achieved glycemic targets and who have prevalent atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. With additional cardiorenal protection trials underway, sodium-related physiological effects of SGLT2 inhibitors and clinical correlates of natriuresis, such as the impact on blood pressure, heart failure, kidney protection, and mortality, will be a major management focus.

Sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibition in the diabetic kidney: an update.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) reabsorbs most of the glucose filtered by the kidneys. SGLT2 inhibitors reduce glucose reabsorption, thereby lowering blood glucose levels, and have been approved as new antihyperglycemic drugs. Although the therapeutic strategy is very promising, many questions remain. RECENT FINDINGS: Using validated antibodies, SGLT2 expression was localized to the brush border of the early proximal tubule in the human kidney and was found upregulated in genetic murine models of type 1 and 2 diabetes. SGLT2 may functionally interact with the Na/H exchanger NHE3 in the proximal tubule. SGLT1-mediated reabsorption explains the fractional renal glucose reabsorption of 40-50% during SGLT2 inhibition. SGLT2 is expressed on pancreatic alfa cells where its inhibition induces glucagon secretion. SGLT2 inhibition lowers glomerular filtration rate in hyperfiltering diabetic patients consistent with the tubular hypothesis of diabetic hyperfiltration. New data indicate a potential of SGLT2 inhibition for renal medullary hypoxia and ketoacidosis, but also for blood glucose effect-dependent and independent nephroprotective actions, renal gluconeogenesis inhibition, reduction in cardiovascular mortality, and cancer therapy. SUMMARY: The findings expand and refine our understanding of SGLT2 and its inhibition, have relevance for clinical practice, and will help interpret ongoing clinical trials on the long-term safety and cardiovascular effects of SGLT2 inhibitors.

Clinical relevance of the selectivity of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors. / Relevancia clínica de la selectividad de los inhibidores del cotransportador sodio-glucosa tipo 2.

Selectivity is the property of a drug to preferentially bind to a biological structure. Most drugs can bind and stimulate or inhibit more than one system. Therefore, it is important that they are selective for the intended site and that the doses used do not have effects on other sites, which could provoke adverse reactions. Selectivity is assessed through in vitro experiments on organs or isolated cells. If the aim is to compare drugs, the experiment should be conducted in the same tissue and with the same design. Even so, the results cannot be directly extrapolated to clinical practice due to the influence of pharmacokinetic properties, which allow an adequate dose of the drug to reach the target site. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) are able to inhibit renal SGLT2 without modifying intestinal SGLT1, whose inhibition could produce gastrointestinal adverse reactions. The concentration needed to inhibit each of the transporters is calculated, as well as the ratio between the concentration that inhibits SGLT1 and the concentration needed to inhibit SGLT2. The higher the ratio, the greater the selectivity and the lower the risk of gastrointestinal adverse reactions. The three SGLT2i recently introduced in the therapeutic arsenal are sufficiently selective for SGLT2 to make effects on intestinal SGLT1 unlikely. To differentiate the components of this therapeutic class, its pharmacokinetic properties should be analysed rather than its pharmacodynamic characteristics, such as selectivity.

Hyperglycemia causes cellular senescence via a SGLT2- and p21-dependent pathway in proximal tubules in the early stage of diabetic nephropathy.

AIMS: Kidney cells in patients with diabetic nephropathy are reported to be senescent. However, the mechanisms that regulate cellular senescence in the diabetic kidney are still unknown. In the present study, we evaluated the contribution of high glucose to renal cell senescence in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice. METHODS: Non-diabetic and streptozotocin (STZ, 10mgkg(-1)day(-1) for 7days, i.p.)-induced type 1 diabetic C57BL/6J mice and cultured human proximal tubular cells were used in this study. RESULTS: Hyperglycemia dramatically increased the renal expression of p21 but not other CDK inhibitors such as p16 and p27 at 4weeks after STZ injection. These changes were accompanied by an increase in senescence-associated ß-galactosidase staining in tubular epithelial cells. Administration of insulin at doses that maintained normoglycemia or mild hypoglycemia suppressed the changes induced by STZ. Insulin did not affect the senescent markers in non-diabetic mice. Exposure of cultured human proximal tubular cells to 25mmol/L, but not 8mmol/L, glucose medium increased the expression of senescence markers, which was suppressed by knock-down of p21 or sodium glucose cotransporter (SGLT) 2. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that hyperglycemia causes tubular senescence via a SGLT2- and p21-dependent pathway in the type 1 diabetic kidney.

Sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors and prevention of diabetic nephropathy: targeting the renal tubule in diabetes.

Optimal prevention and treatment of chronic kidney disease in diabetes requires implementing therapies that specifically interfere with the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. In this regard, significant attention has been given to alterations of the proximal tubule and resulting changes in glomerular filtration rate. At the onset of diabetes mellitus, hyperglycemia causes increases in proximal tubular reabsorption secondary to induction of tubular growth with associated increases in sodium/glucose cotransport. The increase in proximal reabsorption leads to a decrease in solute load to the macula densa, deactivation of the tubuloglomerular feedback, and increases in glomerular filtration rate. Because glomerular hyperfiltration currently is recognized as a risk factor for progression of kidney disease in diabetic patients, limiting proximal tubular reabsorption constitutes a potential target to reduce hyperfiltration. The recent introduction of sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors opens new therapeutic perspectives for this high-risk patient population. Experimental studies have shown that these new agents attenuate the progressive nature of diabetic nephropathy by blood glucose-dependent and -independent mechanisms. SGLT2 inhibition may prevent glomerular hyperfiltration independent of the effect of lowering blood glucose levels while limiting kidney growth, inflammation, and albuminuria through reductions in blood glucose levels. Clinical data for the potential role of the proximal tubule in the pathophysiology of diabetic nephropathy and the nephroprotective effects of SGLT2 inhibitors currently are limited compared to the more extensive experimental literature. We review the evidence supporting this working hypothesis by integrating the experimental findings with the available clinical data.