Inhaled sphingosine has no adverse side effects in isolated ventilated and perfused pig lungs.

Ex-vivo lung perfusion (EVLP) systems like XVIVO are more and more common in the setting of lung transplantation, since marginal donor-lungs can easily be subjected to a performance test or be treated with corticosteroids or antibiotics in high dose regimes. Donor lungs are frequently positive in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) bacterial cultures (46-89%) which leads to a donor-to-recipient transmission and after a higher risk of lung infection with reduced posttransplant outcome. We have previously shown that sphingosine very efficiently kills a variety of pathogens, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and epidermidis, Escherichia coli or Haemophilus influenzae. Thus, sphingosine could be a new treatment option with broadspectrum antiinfective potential, which may improve outcome after lung transplantation when administered prior to lung re-implantation. Here, we tested whether sphingosine has any adverse effects in the respiratory tract when applied into isolated ventilated and perfused lungs. A 4-h EVLP run using minipig lungs was performed. Functional parameters as well as perfusate measurements where obtained. Biopsies were obtained 30 min and 150 min after inhalation of sphingosine. Tissue samples were fixed in paraformaldehyde, embedded in paraffin and sectioned. Hemalaun, TUNEL as well as stainings with Cy3-coupled anti-sphingosine or anti-ceramide antibodies were implemented. We demonstrate that tube-inhalation of sphingosine into ex-vivo perfused and ventilated minipig lungs results in increased levels of sphingosine in the luminal membrane of bronchi and the trachea without morphological side effects up to very high doses of sphingosine. Sphingosine also did not affect functional lung performance. In summary, the inhalation of sphingosine results in an increase of sphingosine concentrations in the luminal plasma membrane of tracheal and bronchial epithelial cells. The inhalation has no local side effects in ex-vivo perfused and ventilated minipig lungs.

Permissive Modulation of Sphingosine-1-Phosphate-Enhanced Intracellular Calcium on BKCa Channel of Chromaffin Cells.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), is a signaling sphingolipid which acts as a bioactive lipid mediator. We assessed whether S1P had multiplex effects in regulating the large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel (BKCa) in catecholamine-secreting chromaffin cells. Using multiple patch-clamp modes, Ca2+ imaging, and computational modeling, we evaluated the effects of S1P on the Ca2+-activated K+ currents (IK(Ca)) in bovine adrenal chromaffin cells and in a pheochromocytoma cell line (PC12). In outside-out patches, the open probability of BKCa channel was reduced with a mean-closed time increment, but without a conductance change in response to a low-concentration S1P (1 µM). The intracellular Ca2+ concentration (Cai) was elevated in response to a high-dose (10 µM) but not low-dose of S1P. The single-channel activity of BKCa was also enhanced by S1P (10 µM) in the cell-attached recording of chromaffin cells. In the whole-cell voltage-clamp, a low-dose S1P (1 µM) suppressed IK(Ca), whereas a high-dose S1P (10 µM) produced a biphasic response in the amplitude of IK(Ca), i.e., an initial decrease followed by a sustained increase. The S1P-induced IK(Ca) enhancement was abolished by BAPTA. Current-clamp studies showed that S1P (1 µM) increased the action potential (AP) firing. Simulation data revealed that the decreased BKCa conductance leads to increased AP firings in a modeling chromaffin cell. Over a similar dosage range, S1P (1 µM) inhibited IK(Ca) and the permissive role of S1P on the BKCa activity was also effectively observed in the PC12 cell system. The S1P-mediated IK(Ca) stimulation may result from the elevated Cai, whereas the inhibition of BKCa activity by S1P appears to be direct. By the differentiated tailoring BKCa channel function, S1P can modulate stimulus-secretion coupling in chromaffin cells.

Therapeutic Inhaled Sphingosine for Treating Lung Infection in a Mouse Model of Critical Illness.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Sphingosine, a sphingoid long chain base, is a natural lipid with antimicrobial properties. Recent animal studies have shown that preventive sphingosine inhalation can rescue susceptible mice, such as cystic fibrosis-, burn injured- or aged mice from bacterial pulmonary infection. While preventing lung infections in susceptible patients has obvious clinical merit, treatment strategies for an established infection are also direly needed, particularly in the times of rising antibiotic resistance. Here, we tested the potential of sphingosine in treating an established pulmonary infection. METHODS: We used a cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) model in male CF-1 mice and a Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain that was isolated from a septic patient (P. aeruginosa 762). We determined susceptibility to intranasal infection and ascertained when the pulmonary infection was established by continuous core body temperature monitoring. We quantified sphingosine levels in the tracheal epithelium by immunohistochemistry and studied the effects on sphingosine on bacterial membrane permeabilization and intracellular acidification using fluorescent probes. RESULTS: We firstdetermined that septic mice are highly susceptible to P. aeruginosa infection 2 days after indu-cing sepsis. Additionally, at this time, sphingosine levels in the tracheal epithelium are significantly reduced as compared to levels in healthy mice. Secondly, upon intranasal Pseudomonasinoculation, we ascertained that pulmonary infection was established as early as 2.5 h after inoculation as evidenced by a significant drop in core body temperature. Using these times of infection susceptibility and detection (2 days post CLP, 2.5h after inoculation) we treated with inhaled sphingosine and observed pulmonary bacterial loads reduced to levels found in infected healthy mice after inoculation and decreased infection-associated mortality. Further, our data demonstrate that sphingosine induces outer membrane permeabilization, disrupting the membrane potential and leading to intracellular acidification of the bacteria. CONCLUSION: Sphingosine shows efficacy in treating P. aeruginosa lung infections not only prophylactically, but also therapeutically.

Pharmacokinetics and Tolerability of the Novel Non-immunosuppressive Fingolimod Derivative, OSU-2S, in Dogs and Comparisons with Data in Mice and Rats.

In this study, we characterized the pharmacokinetics of OSU-2S, a fingolimod-derived, non-immunosuppressive phosphatase activator, in mice, rats, and dogs, as well as tolerability and food effects in dogs. Across all species tested, plasma protein binding for OSU-2S was > 99.5%, and metabolic stability and hepatic intrinsic clearance were in the moderate range. OSU-2S did not significantly modulate CYP enzyme activity up until 50 µM, and Caco-2 data suggested low permeability with active efflux at 2 µM. Apparent oral bioavailability in mice was 16% and 69% at 10 and 50 mg/kg, respectively. In rats, bioavailability was 24%, 35%, and 28% at 10, 30, and 100 mg/kg, respectively, while brain/plasma ratio was 36 at 6-h post-dose at 30 mg/kg. In dogs, OSU-2S was well tolerated with oral capsule bioavailability of 27.5%. Plasma OSU-2S exposures increased proportionally over a 2.5-20 mg/kg dose range. After 4 weeks of 3 times weekly, oral administration (20 mg/kg), plasma AUClast (26.1 µM*h), and Cmax (0.899 µM) were nearly 2-fold greater than those after 1 week of dosing, and no food effects were observed. The elimination half-life (29.7 h), clearance (22.9 mL/min/kg), and plasma concentrations of repeated oral doses support a 3-times weekly dosing schedule in dogs. No significant CBC, serum biochemical, or histopathological changes were observed. OSU-2S has favorable oral PK properties similar to fingolimod in rodents and dogs and is well tolerated in healthy animals. This work supports establishing trials of OSU-2S efficacy in dogs with spontaneous tumors to guide its clinical development as a cancer therapeutic for human patients.

Declining BRCA-Mediated DNA Repair in Sperm Aging and its Prevention by Sphingosine-1-Phosphate.

Recent data suggest that paternal age can have major impact on reproductive outcomes, and with increased age, there is increased likelihood of chromosomal abnormalities in the sperm. Here, we studied DNA damage and repair as a function of male aging and assessed whether sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a ceramide-induced death inhibitor, can prevent sperm aging by enhancing DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) repair. We observed a significant increase in DNA damage with age and this increase was associated with a decline in the expression of key DNA DSB repair genes in mouse sperm. The haploinsufficiency of BRCA1 male mice sperm showed significantly increased DNA damage and apoptosis, along with decreased chromatin integrity when compared to similar age wild type (WT) mice. Furthermore, haploinsufficiency of BRCA1 male mice had lower sperm count and smaller litter size when crossed with WT females. The resulting embryos had a higher probability of growth arrest and reduced implantation. S1P treatment decreased genotoxic-stress-induced DNA damage in sperm and enhanced the expressions of key DNA repair genes such as BRCA1. Co-treatment with an ATM inhibitor reversed the effects of S1P, implying that the impact of S1P on DNA repair is via the ATM-mediated pathway. Our findings indicate a key role for DNA damage repair mechanism in the maintenance of sperm integrity and suggest that S1P can improve DNA repair in sperm. Further translational studies are warranted to determine the clinical significance of these findings and whether S1P can delay male reproductive aging. There is mounting evidence that sperm quality declines with age, similar to that of the oocyte. However, the reasons behind this decline are poorly understood and there is no medical intervention to improve sperm quality. Our study suggests a strong role for DNA damage repair in maintenance of sperm quality, and for the first time, a potential pharmaceutical approach to prevent sperm aging.

Ceramides affect alcohol consumption and depressive-like and anxiety-like behavior in a brain region- and ceramide species-specific way in male mice.

Depression and alcohol dependence are associated with increased plasma ceramide concentrations in humans. Pharmacological increase in C16 ceramide concentrations in the dorsal hippocampus (DH) induced a depressive-like phenotype in naïve mice. However, the effects of C16 ceramide on alcohol consumption and anxiety-like behavior as well as the behavioral effects of other ceramide species are yet unknown. Therefore, we investigated whether repeated infusion of ceramides with different fatty acid chain lengths (C8, C16, and C20) into the DH and the basolateral amygdala (BLA) alter alcohol consumption, emotional behavior, and tissue monoamine levels. Our results revealed that C16, but not C8 and C20, ceramide altered alcohol drinking and emotional behavior in a brain region-specific way without altering tissue noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin levels in the prefrontal cortex, ventral striatum, and dorsal mesencephalon. In more detail, C16 ceramide increased alcohol consumption when infused into the BLA, but not when infused into the DH. Furthermore, C16 ceramide induced a depressive-like phenotype when infused into the DH, but a predominantly anxiogenic-like phenotype (in a non-social, but not a social context) when infused into the BLA. In turn, alcohol drinking normalized C16 ceramide-induced depressive-like and anxiogenic-like phenotypes. This study demonstrates a complex ceramide species-specific and brain region-specific modulation of alcohol consumption and emotional behavior in mice and provides the framework for future studies investigating the involvement of distinct ceramide species in the regulation of emotional behavior.

Preventive preclinical efficacy of intravenously administered sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) in strengthening hypoxia adaptive responses to acute and sub-chronic hypobaric hypoxia.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is emerging as a hypoxia responsive bio-lipid; systemically raised levels of S1P are proposed to have potential hypoxia pre-conditioning effects. The study aims to evaluate the hypoxia pre-conditioning efficacy of exogenously administered S1P in rats exposed to acute (24-48 hs (h)) and sub-chronic (7 days) hypobaric hypoxia. Sprague-Dawley rats (200 ± 20 g) were preconditioned with 1 µg/kg body weight S1P intravenously for three consecutive days. On the third day, control and S1P preconditioned animals were exposed to hypobaric hypoxia equivalent to 7620 m for 24 h, 48 h and 7 days. Post exposure analysis included body weight quantitation, blood gas/chemistry analysis, vascular permeability assays, evaluation of oxidative stress/inflammation parameters, and estimation of hypoxia responsive molecules. S1P preconditioned rats exposed to acute HH display a significant reduction in body weight loss, as a culmination of improved oxygen carrying capacity, increased 2,3- diphosphoglycerate levels and recuperation from energy deficit. Pathological disturbances such as vascular leakage in the lungs and brain, oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory milieu and raised level of endothelin-1 were also reined. The adaptive and protective advantage conferred by S1P in the acute phase of hypobaric hypoxia exposure, is observed to precipitate into an improved sustenance even after sub-chronic (7d) hypobaric hypoxia exposure as indicated by decreased body weight loss, lower edema index and improvement in general pathology biomarkers. Conclusively, administration of 1 µg/kg body weight S1P, in the aforementioned schedule, confer hypoxia pre-conditioning benefits, sustained up to 7 days of hypobaric hypoxia exposure.

Investigation of sphingosin-1-phosphate-triggered matriptase activation using a rat primary hepatocyte model.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has been reported as a matriptase activator. The aim of this study was to reveal if S1P can influence hepcidin production. Furthermore, we investigated how S1P can affect the viability and the redox status of primary hepatocytes. Rat primary hepatocytes were cultivated for 72 h and were treated with 50, 200, 1000 ng/ml S1P. Cell-free supernatants were collected every 24 h. Cell viability was tested by a colorimetric method using tetrazolium compound (MTS). The hepcidin levels in the cell-free supernatants were examined with hepcidin sandwich ELISA to determine the effect of S1P on the hepcidin-modulating ability of matriptase. In order to estimate the extent of S1P-generated oxidative stress, extracellular H2O2 measurements were performed by the use of fluorescent dye. Based on the findings, S1P treatment did not cause cell death for 72 h at concentrations up to 1000 ng/ml. S1P did not influence the extracellular H2O2 production for 72 h. The hepcidin levels were significantly suppressed in hepatocytes exposed to S1P treatment. Further studies would be needed to explore the exact mechanism of action of S1P.

Alkaline Ceramidase Mediates the Oxidative Stress Response in Drosophila melanogaster Through Sphingosine.

Alkaline ceramidase (Dacer) in Drosophila melanogaster was demonstrated to be resistant to paraquat-induced oxidative stress. However, the underlying mechanism for this resistance remained unclear. Here, we showed that sphingosine feeding triggered the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Dacer-deficient D. melanogaster (Dacer mutant) has higher catalase (CAT) activity and CAT transcription level, leading to higher resistance to oxidative stress induced by paraquat. By performing a quantitative proteomic analysis, we identified 79 differentially expressed proteins in comparing Dacer mutant to wild type. Three oxidoreductases, including two cytochrome P450 (CG3050, CG9438) and an oxoglutarate/iron-dependent dioxygenase (CG17807), were most significantly upregulated in Dacer mutant. We presumed that altered antioxidative activity in Dacer mutant might be responsible for increased oxidative stress resistance. Our work provides a novel insight into the oxidative antistress response in D. melanogaster.

Sequential Bone-Marrow Cell Delivery of VEGFA/S1P Improves Vascularization and Limits Adverse Cardiac Remodeling After Myocardial Infarction in Mice.

Microvascular dysfunction and resulting tissue hypoxia is a major contributor to the pathogenesis and evolution of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Diverse gene and cell therapies have been proposed to preserve the microvasculature or boost angiogenesis in CVD, with moderate benefit. This study tested in vivo the impact of sequential delivery by bone-marrow (BM) cells of the pro-angiogenic factors vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGFA) and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) in a myocardial infarction model. For that, mouse BM cells were transduced with lentiviral vectors coding for VEGFA or sphingosine kinase (SPHK1), which catalyzes S1P production, and injected them intravenously 4 and 7 days after cardiac ischemia-reperfusion in mice. Sequential delivery by transduced BM cells of VEGFA and S1P led to increased endothelial cell numbers and shorter extravascular distances in the infarct zone, which support better oxygen diffusion 28 days post myocardial infarction, as shown by automated 3D image analysis of the microvasculature. Milder effects were observed in the remote zone, together with increased proportion of capillaries. BM cells delivering VEGFA and S1P also decreased myofibroblast abundance and restricted adverse cardiac remodeling without major impact on cardiac contractility. The results indicate that BM cells engineered to deliver VEGFA/S1P angiogenic factors sequentially may constitute a promising strategy to improve micro-vascularization and oxygen diffusion, thus limiting the adverse consequences of cardiac ischemia.

The involvement of blood cells in the phosphorylation of the selective sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 agonist SYL-927.

SYL-927 is a selective sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1P1) agonist for autoimmune diseases. It undergoes phosphorylation to the active SYL-927-P in vivo, which activates S1P1 on lymphocytes, causing lymphopenia by retention of lymphocytes in the lymph nodes. The aim of this study was to identify the involvement of blood cells in the phosphorylation of SYL-927. In addition, pharmacokinetics of SYL-927 and SYL-927-P in blood and plasma were compared in rats. The results demonstrated that SYL-927 can be converted to SYL-927-P in rat blood, but not in rat plasma. However, both rat blood and plasma are capable of dephosphorylating SYL-927-P to SYL-927. SYL-927-P generation and release were observed after incubating SYL-927 with rat and human erythrocytes and platelets. The addition of sphingosine kinases (SPHKs) inhibitors N,N-dimethylsphingosine (DMS) and FTY720 significantly inhibited SYL-927-P generation, indicating the involvement of SPHKs. In addition, SYL-927 and SYL-927-P levels in blood were significantly higher than those in plasma after oral administration of SYL-927 in rats, suggesting the blood cells for the production of SYL-927-P. In summary, the blood cells such as erythrocytes and platelets contribute to the generation and release of SYL-927-P, which is important for maintaining plasma active phosphate levels for prolonged effects.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate promotes mesenchymal stem cell-mediated cardioprotection against myocardial infarction via ERK1/2-MMP-9 and Akt signaling axis.

AIMS: The sphingolipid metabolite sphingosine 1­phosphate (S1P) has emerged as a potential cardioprotective molecule against ischemic heart disease. Moreover, S1P triggers mobilization and homing of bone marrow-derived stem/progenitor cells into the damaged heart. However, it remains elusive whether S1P promotes mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)-mediated cardioprotection against ischemic heart diseases. MAIN METHODS: Adipose tissue-derived MSCs (AT-MSCs) were obtained from GFP transgenic mice or C57BL/6J. Myocardial infarction (MI) was induced in C57BL/6J mice by ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD). Subsequently, S1P-treated AT-MSCs or vehicle-treated AT-MSCs were intravenously administered for 24 h after induction of MI or sham procedure. KEY FINDINGS: Pre-conditioning with S1P significantly enhanced the migratory and anti-apoptotic efficacies of AT-MSCs. In MI-induced mice, intravenous administration of S1P-treated AT-MSCs significantly augmented their homing and engraftment in ischemic area. Besides, AT-MSCs with S1P pre-treatment exhibited enhanced potencies to inhibit cardiomyocyte apoptosis and fibrosis, and stimulate angiogenesis and preserve cardiac function. Mechanistic studies revealed that S1P promoted AT-MSCs migration through activation of ERK1/2-MMP-9, and protected AT-MSCs against apoptosis via Akt activation. Further, S1P activated the ERK1/2 and Akt via S1P receptor 2 (S1PR2), but not through S1PR1. S1PR2 knockdown by siRNA, however, significantly attenuated S1P-mediated AT-MSCs migration and anti-apoptosis. SIGNIFICANCE: The findings of the present study revealed the protective efficacies of S1P pretreatment on the survival/retention and cardioprotection of engrafted MSCs. Pre-conditioning of donor MSCs with S1P is an effective strategy to promote the therapeutic potential of MSCs for ischemic heart diseases.

Binding and structure-kinetic relationship analysis of selective TLR4-targeted immunosuppressive self-assembling heparin nanoparticles.

Self-assembling aliphatic heparin derivatives were shown to inhibit the immune system by antagonizing Toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation protein 2 (TLR4/MD2). In the present study, glycol split heparin-d-erythro-sphingosine conjugates (NAHNP) and its regioselectively desulfated derivatives with shortened aliphatic chains were investigated regarding their biophysical properties in the interaction with TLR4/MD2. Two-dimensional nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy studies showed that upon glycol splitting, the heparin backbone gains extra adaptability that facilitates binding to proteins. However, unlike native heparin or glycol split non-anticoagulant heparin (NAH), hydrophobic derivatization of NAH forces sulfated iduronic acid residues to change configuration from a 2S0 skew-boat to a 1C4 chair form. Whereas neither heparin nor NAH had any appreciable effect, NAHNP significantly inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of the NF-κB transcription factor. We showed that NAHNP binds to TLR4/MD2 with an affinity of 62.3 nM. In line with computational studies, biosensor-based structure-kinetic relationship studies demonstrated that 6-O-sulfo groups of d-glucosamine residue were essential in binding to arginines of both TLR4 and MD2 domains of the receptor complex. The desulfation of 6-O-sulfo groups decreases the association kinetics from 4.2 × 104 M-1 s-1 to 3.8 × 103 M-1 s-1, which results in a decreased affinity of 800 nM. Two aliphatic chains of NAHNP bound to the MD2 pocket similarly to lipopolysaccharide. A decrease in chain length resulted in a loss of inhibitory activity on NF-κB transcription and binding affinity to TLR4/MD2. In conclusion, the present study characterizes the immunosuppressive effect of aliphatic heparin derivatives and provides a promising strategy to develop selective immunosuppressants for acute and chronic inflammatory disorders.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate ameliorates the cardiac hypertrophic response through inhibiting the activity of histone deacetylase-2.

Inhibition of histone deacetylase-2 (HDAC2), which is a prohypertrophic factor in the heart, can functionally attenuate cardiac hypertrophy. The present study aimed to investigate whether sphingosine­1­phosphate (S1P), which has recently been reported to suppress HDAC2 activity, could ameliorate the cardiac hypertrophic response and improve cardiac function in mice with transverse aortic constriction (TAC), as well as to determine the underlying mechanisms. Briefly, 8­week­old male C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into sham, TAC and TAC + S1P groups; the results indicated that S1P treatment attenuated TAC­induced cardiac dysfunction. In addition, heart size and the expression levels of fetal cardiac genes were reduced in the TAC + S1P group compared with in the TAC group. Furthermore, in cultured H9c2 cells exposed to phenylephrine, S1P was revealed to decrease cardiomyocyte size and the exaggerated expression of fetal cardiac genes. The present study also demonstrated that S1P had no effect on HDAC2 expression, but it did suppress its activity and increase acetylation of histone H3 in vivo and in vitro. Krüppel­like factor 4 (KLF4) is an antihypertrophic transcriptional regulator, which mediates HDAC inhibitor­induced prevention of cardiac hypertrophy; in the present study, KLF4 was upregulated by S1P. Finally, the results indicated that S1P receptor 2 (S1PR2) may be involved in the antihypertrophic effects, whereas the suppressive effects of S1P on HDAC2 activity were independent of S1PR2. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that S1P treatment may ameliorate the cardiac hypertrophic response, which may be partly mediated by the suppression of HDAC2 activity and the upregulation of KLF4; it was suggested that S1PR2 may also be involved. Therefore, S1P may be considered a potential therapy for the treatment of heart diseases caused by cardiac hypertrophy.

Sphingosine rescues aged mice from pulmonary pseudomonas infection.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial lung infection is a leading cause of death for those 65 y or older, often requiring intensive care unit admission and mechanical ventilation, which consumes considerable health care resources. Although administration of antibiotics is the standard of care for bacterial pneumonia, its overuse has led to the emergence of multidrug resistant organisms. Therefore, alternative strategies to help minimize the effects of bacterial pneumonia in the elderly are necessary. As studies have shown that sphingosine (SPH) has inherent bacterial killing properties, our goal was to assess whether it could act as a prophylactic treatment to protect aged mice from pulmonary infection by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. METHODS: Aged (51 wk) and young (8 wk) C57Bl/6 mice were used in this study. Pulmonary SPH levels were determined by histology. SPH content of microparticles was quantified using a SPH kinase assay. Pneumonia was induced by intranasally treating mice with 106 Colony Forming Unit (CFU) P aeruginosa. Microparticles were isolated from young mice, whereas some were further incubated with SPH. RESULTS: We observed that SPH levels are reduced in the bronchial epithelial cells as well as the bronchoalveolar lavage microparticles isolated from aged mice, which correlates with a susceptibility to infection. We demonstrate that SPH or microparticle treatment can protect aged mice from pulmonary P aeruginosa infection. Finally, we observed that enriching microparticles with SPH before treatment eliminated the bacterial load in P aeruginosa-infected aged mice. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that prophylactic treatment with SPH could reduce lung bacterial infections for the at-risk elderly population.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate alleviates Coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis by increasing invariant natural killer T cells.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), via binding to its specific receptors of S1PR1, participates in the regulation of both innate and adaptive immunity. Recent reports have identified S1P as a messenger mediating inflammation. However, roles of S1P in Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3)-induced myocarditis were largely unknown. Here, we investigated the effect of S1P treatment on CVB3-induced myocarditis in vivo. We found that CVB3 infection downregulated S1PR1 expression in spleen and decreased the proportion of invariant natural killer T cells (iNKT) in CD3 positive T cells both in spleen and in blood from left ventricle, which accompanied by severe inflammation lesions and more virus capsid protein (VP1) expression in heart tissue. In comparison, S1P supply upregulated iNKT in the spleen and in blood from left ventricle, which represented the strengthening of anti-inflammatory effects. Indeed, inflammation infiltration, VP1 expression and apoptosis in the myocardium was all downregulated. These results demonstrated that S1P supplement could alleviate CVB3-induced myocarditis.

Therapeutic effects of sphingosine kinase inhibitor N,N-dimethylsphingosine (DMS) in experimental chronic Chagas disease cardiomyopathy.

Chagas disease cardiomyopathy is a parasite-driven inflammatory disease to which there are no effective treatments. Here we evaluated the therapeutic potential of N,N-dimethylsphingosine(DMS), which blocks the production of sphingosine-1-phosphate(S1P), a mediator of cellular events during inflammatory responses, in a model of chronic Chagas disease cardiomyopathy. DMS-treated, Trypanosoma cruzi-infected mice had a marked reduction of cardiac inflammation, fibrosis and galectin-3 expression when compared to controls. Serum concentrations of galectin-3, IFNγ and TNFα, as well as cardiac gene expression of inflammatory mediators were reduced after DMS treatment. The gene expression of M1 marker, iNOS, was decreased, while the M2 marker, arginase1, was increased. DMS-treated mice showed an improvement in exercise capacity. Moreover, DMS caused a reduction in parasite load in vivo. DMS inhibited the activation of lymphocytes, and reduced cytokines and NO production in activated macrophage cultures in vitro, while increasing IL-1ß production. Analysis by qRT-PCR array showed that DMS treatment modulated inflammasome activation induced by T. cruzi on macrophages. Altogether, our results demonstrate that DMS, through anti-parasitic and immunomodulatory actions, can be beneficial in the treatment of chronic phase of T. cruzi infection and suggest that S1P-activated processes as possible therapeutic targets for the treatment of Chagas disease cardiomyopathy.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate reduces adhesion of malignant mammary tumor cells MDA-MB-231 to microvessel walls by protecting endothelial surface glycocalyx.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a sphingolipid in plasma that plays a critical role in cardiovascular and immune systems. Endothelial surface glycocalyx (ESG) decorating the inner wall of blood vessels is a regulator of multiple vascular functions. To test the hypothesis that S1P can reduce tumor cell adhesion to microvessel walls by protecting the ESG, we quantified the ESG and MDA-MB-231 tumor cell adhesion in the presence and absence of 1µM S1P, and in the presence of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitor in post-capillary venules of rat mesentery. We also measured the microvessel permeability to albumin as an indicator for the microvessel wall integrity. In the absence of S1P, ESG was ~10% of that in the presence of S1P, whereas adherent tumor cells and the permeability to albumin and were ~3.5-fold (after 30 min adhesion) and ~7.7-fold that in the presence of S1P, respectively. In the presence of the MMP inhibitor, the results are similar to those in the presence of S1P. Our results conform to the hypothesis that protecting ESG by S1P inhibits MDA-MB-231 tumor cell adhesion to the microvessel wall.

Vehicle-dependent Effects of Sphingosine 1-phosphate on Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 Expression.

AIM: Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) has been suggested to be a positive regulator of plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) in adipocytes, while some studies are not consistent with this prothrombotic property of S1P. Since S1P is bound to apolipoprotein M (apoM) on HDL or to albumin in plasma, we compared the properties of these two forms on the PAI-1 induction. METHODS: We investigated the associations of S1P, apoM, and PAI-1 concentrations in the plasma of normal coronary artery (NCA), stable angina pectoris (SAP), and acute coronary syndrome (ACS) subjects (n=32, 71, and 38, respectively). Then, we compared the effects of S1P with various vehicles on the PAI-1 expression in 3T3L1 adipocytes. We also investigated the modulation of the PAI-1 levels in mice infected with adenovirus coding apoM. RESULTS: Among ACS subjects, the PAI-1 level was positively correlated with the S1P level, but not the apoM level. In adipocytes, S1P bound to an apoM-rich vehicle induced PAI-1 expression to a lesser extent than the control vehicle, while S1P bound to an apoM-depleted vehicle induced PAI-1 expression to a greater extent than the control vehicle in 3T3L1 adipocytes. Additionally, apoM overexpression in mice failed to modulate the plasma PAI-1 level and the adipose PAI-1 expression level. S1P bound to albumin increased PAI-1 expression through the S1P receptor 2-Rho/ROCK-NFκB pathway. CONCLUSION: S1P bound to albumin, but not to apoM, induces PAI-1 expression in adipocytes, indicating that S1P can exert different properties on the pathogenesis of vascular diseases, depending on its vehicle.

The effects of graded levels of calorie restriction: IX. Global metabolomic screen reveals modulation of carnitines, sphingolipids and bile acids in the liver of C57BL/6 mice.

Calorie restriction (CR) remains the most robust intervention to extend lifespan and improve health span. Using a global mass spectrometry-based metabolomic approach, we identified 193 metabolites that were significantly differentially expressed (SDE) in the livers of C57BL/6 mice, fed graded levels of CR (10, 20, 30 and 40% CR) compared to mice fed ad libitum for 12 h a day. The differential expression of metabolites also varied with the different feeding groups. Pathway analysis revealed that graded CR had an impact on carnitine synthesis and the carnitine shuttle pathway, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) signalling and methionine metabolism. S1P, sphingomyelin and L-carnitine were negatively correlated with body mass, leptin, insulin-like growth factor- 1 (IGF-1) and major urinary proteins (MUPs). In addition, metabolites which showed a graded effect, such as ceramide, S1P, taurocholic acid and L-carnitine, responded in the opposite direction to previously observed age-related changes. We suggest that the modulation of this set of metabolites may improve liver processes involved in energy release from fatty acids. S1P also negatively correlated with catalase activity and body temperature, and positively correlated with food anticipatory activity. Injecting mice with S1P or an S1P receptor 1 agonist did not precipitate changes in body temperature, physical activity or food intake suggesting that these correlations were not causal relationships.