The draft genome of Spiraea crenata L. (Rosaceae) - the first complete genome in tribe Spiraeeae.

Spiraea crenata L. is a deciduous shrub distributed across the Eurasian steppe zone. The species is of cultural and horticultural importance and occurs in scattered populations throughout its westernmost range. Currently, there is no genomic information on the tribe of Spiraeeae. Therefore we sequenced and assembled the whole genome of S. crenata using second- and third-generation sequencing and a hybrid assembly approach to expand genomic resources for conservation and support research on this horticulturally important lineage. In addition to the organellar genomes (the plastome and the mitochondrion), we present the first draft genome of the species with an estimated size of 220 Mbp, an N50 value of 7.7 Mbp, and a BUSCO score of 96.0%. Being the first complete genome in tribe Spiraeeae, this may not only be the first step in the genomic study of a rare plant but also a contribution to genomic resources supporting the study of biodiversity and evolutionary history of Rosaceae.

Plastid genome and its phylogenetic implications of Asiatic Spiraea (Rosaceae).

BACKGROUND: Spiraea L. is a genus comprising approximately 90 species that are distributed throughout the northern temperate regions. China is recognized as the center of species diversity for this genus, hosting more than 70 species, including 47 endemic species. While Spiraea is well-known for its ornamental value, its taxonomic and phylogenetic studies have been insufficient. RESULTS: In this study, we conducted sequencing and assembly of the plastid genomes (plastomes) of 34 Asiatic Spiraea accessions (representing 27 Asiatic Spiraea species) from China and neighboring regions. The Spiraea plastid genome exhibits typical quadripartite structures and encodes 113-114 genes, including 78-79 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 30 tRNA genes, and 4 rRNA genes. Linear regression analysis revealed a significant correlation between genome size and the length of the SC region. By the sliding windows method, we identified several hypervariable hotspots within the Spiraea plastome, all of which were localized in the SC regions. Our phylogenomic analysis successfully established a robust phylogenetic framework for Spiraea, but it did not support the current defined section boundaries. Additionally, we discovered that the genus underwent diversification after the Early Oligocene (~ 30 Ma), followed by a rapid speciation process during the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods. CONCLUSIONS: The plastomes of Spiraea provided us invaluable insights into its phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history. In conjunction with plastome data, further investigations utilizing other genomes, such as the nuclear genome, are urgently needed to enhance our understanding of the evolutionary history of this genus.

Non-Targeted Screening of Metabolites in Aqueous-Ethanol Extract from Spiraea hypericifolia (Rosaceae) Using LC-HRMS.

By means of liquid chromatography combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry, metabolite profiling was performed on an aqueous-ethanol extract from Spiraea hypericifolia (Rosaceae) collected in Siberia (Russia). Up to 140 compounds were found in the extract, of which 47 were tentatively identified. The identified compounds were amino acids, sugars, phenylpropanoids, fatty acids and their derivatives, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and others. A quantitative analysis showed the predominance of phenolcarboxylic acids and flavonoids in the studied extract, but a qualitative analysis revealed the higher structural diversity of flavonoids. Of the 23 identified flavonoids, 13 were flavonols: quercetin, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, reynoutrin, avicularin, rutin, quercetin-3-O-(6″-O-malonyl)-ß-D-glucoside, 3-O-methylquercetin-3'-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside, isorhamnetin, rhamnetin-3-O-ß-D-xylopyranosyl-ß-D-glucopyranoside, kaempferol, tiliroside, and trifolin; six were catechins: catechin, (-)-epicatechin, (+)-epicatechin, (+)-catechin-7-O-ß-D-xyloside, (2S,3R)-3,5-dihydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dihydro-2H-chromen-7-yl-ß-D-glucopyranoside, and catechin 7-O-apiofuranoside; two are isoflavones: genistin and genistein; and one was a flavone (luteolin-4'-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside) and another was an anthocyanidin (pelargonidin). The aqueous-ethanol extract from S. hypericifolia showed antioxidant activity (half-maximal inhibitory concentration 102.95 µg/mL), which was likely related to the high concentrations of phenolcarboxylic acids (229.6 mg/g), flavonoids (118.3 mg/g), and tannins (62.9 mg/g).

A clue to the evolutionary history of modern East Asian flora: Insights from phylogeography and diterpenoid alkaloid distribution pattern of the Spiraea japonica complex.

Each subkingdom of East Asian flora (EAF) has a unique evolutionary history, but which has rarely been described based on phylogeographic studies of EAF species. The Spiraea japonica L. complex, which is widespread in East Asia (EA), has received considerable attention because of the presence of diterpenoid alkaloids (DAs). It provides a proxy for understanding the genetic diversity and DA distribution patterns of species under various environmental conditions associated with the geological background in EA. In the present study, the plastome and chloroplast/nuclear DNA of 71 populations belonging to the S. japonica complex and its congeners were sequenced, combined with DA identification, environmental analyses, and ecological niche modelling, to investigate their phylogenetic relationships, genetic and DAs distribution patterns, biogeography, and demographic dynamics. An "ampliative" S. japonica complex was put forward, comprising all species of Sect. Calospira Ser. Japonicae, of which three evolutionary units carrying their respective unique types of DAs were identified and associated with the regionalization of EAF (referring to the Hengduan Mountains, central China, and east China). Moreover, a transition belt in central China with its biogeographic significance was revealed by genetic and DA distribution patterns from the perspective of ecological adaptation. The origin and onset differentiation of the "ampliative" S. japonica complex was estimated in the early Miocene (22.01/19.44 Ma). The formation of Japanese populations (6.75 Ma) was facilitated by the land bridge, which subsequently had a fairly stable demographic history. The populations in east China have undergone a founder effect after the Last Glacial Maximum, which may have been promoted by the expansion potential of polyploidization. Overall, the in-situ origin and diversification of the "ampliative" S. japonica complex since the early Miocene is a vertical section of the formation and development of modern EAF and was shaped by the geological history of each subkingdom.

Characterization and phylogenetic analyses of ten complete plastomes of Spiraea species.

BACKGROUND: Spiraea is a genus of deciduous shrubs that contains 80-120 species, is mainly distributed in the Northern Hemisphere and has diversified in East Asia. Spiraea species are cultivated as ornamental plants and some are used in traditional herbal medicine. Based on morphological characteristics and genetic markers, phylogenetic classification exhibits low discriminatory power. RESULTS: In present study, we assembled and characterized the chloroplast (cp) genomes of ten Spiraea species and comparatively analysed with five reported cp genomes of this genus. The cp genomes of the fifteen Spiraea species, ranging from 155,904 to 158,637 bp in length, were very conserved and no structural rearrangements occurred. A total of 85 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 37 tRNAs and 8 rRNAs were annotated. We also examined 1,010 simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci, most of which had A/T base preference. Comparative analysis of cp genome demonstrated that single copy and non-coding regions were more divergent than the inverted repeats (IRs) and coding regions and six mutational hotspots were detected. Selection pressure analysis showed that all PCGs were under purifying selection. Phylogenetic analysis based on the complete cp genome data showed that Spiraea formed a monophyletic group and was further divided into two major clades. Infrageneric classification in each clade was supported with a high resolution value. Moreover, the phylogenetic trees based on each individual mutational hotspot segment and their combined dataset also consisted of two major clades, but most of the phylogenetic relationships of interspecies were not well supported. CONCLUSIONS: Although the cp genomes of Spiraea species exhibited high conservation in genome structure, gene content and order, a large number of polymorphism sites and several mutation hotspots were identified in whole cp genomes, which might be sufficiently used as molecular markers to distinguish Spiraea species. Phylogenetic analysis based on the complete cp genome indicated that infrageneric classification in two major clades was supported with high resolution values. Therefore, the cp genome data of the genus Spiraea will be effective in resolving the phylogeny in this genus.

The Influence of Solid and Liquid Systems In Vitro on the Growth and Biosynthetic Characteristics of Microshoot Culture of Spiraea betulifolia ssp. aemiliana.

The paper focuses on the growth dynamics and biosynthetic characteristics of the microshoot culture of Spiraea betulifolia ssp. aemiliana obtained in vitro in agar-solidified and liquid media. Microshoots cultured in either type of media showed similar growth dynamics. The most active culture growth was observed from day 35 to day 60. A comparative analysis of the contents of flavonoids and phenol carboxylic acids showed a higher level of phenol carboxylic acids (5.3-6.84%) and a stronger 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging activity (half-maximal inhibitory concentration: 341 µg/mL) in S. betulifolia ssp. aemiliana microshoots grown in the liquid medium compared to the microshoots cultured in the solid medium. The flavonoid content of the cultured microshoot did not depend on the consistency of the medium. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was employed to study the profile and levels of phenolic compounds in microshoots, intact plants, and ex vitro-acclimated S. betulifolia ssp. aemiliana plants. The concentration of kaempferol glycosides was found to be higher in microshoots (1.33% in the solid medium, 1.06% in the liquid medium) compared to intact plants and ex vitro-acclimated plants. Thus, the microshoots of S. betulifolia ssp. aemiliana cultured in the liquid medium rapidly increase their biomass and are an inexpensive promising source of biologically active antioxidant substances, mainly phenol carboxylic acids and kaempferol glycosides.

Pollen morphology and variability of native and alien, including invasive, species of the genus Spiraea L. (Rosaceae) in Poland.

The pollen morphology was studied in 25 taxa of the genus Spiraea L. The aims of this study were to describe the pollen morphology and variability and to determine whether the pollen features of alien, expansive or invasive Spiraea species differ from those of other taxa. The species of Spiraea were analysed for nine quantitative pollen traits as well as the following qualitative traits: the outline, shape and exine ornamentation. In total, 750 pollen grains were measured. Based on the pollen key exine ornamentation features, then individual Spiraea species were distinguished, while the other species formed groups of usually 2-3, up to 8 species. The most important pollen features included length, width and course of grooves and striae, presence or absence of perforations, as well as their number and diameter. The most variable taxa for all the nine biometric traits jointly were S. ×billardii, S. veitchii, S. nipponica and S. cana. The pollen of the invasive S. tomentosa differed from the other taxa studied, unlike the other invasive species (S. douglasii and S. japonica).

Spiraea prunifolia leaves extract inhibits adipogenesis and lipogenesis by promoting ß-oxidation in high fat diet-induced obese mice.

Spiraea prunifolia has been used in Korean traditional medicine to treat malaria, fever, and emetic conditions. Previous investigation reported that several parts of Spiraea prunifolia show various functional effects. However, the effect of Spiraea prunifolia leaves extract (SPE) on anti-obesity remains unclear. Therefore, we used a high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mouse model in this study to investigate the effects of SPE on adipogenesis, lipogenesis, and ß-oxidation. Oral administration of SPE in HFD-induced obese mice considerably reduced body weight, serum levels such as total cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, adipose tissue weight, and adipocyte cell size. Moreover, SPE significantly decreased protein expression levels of adipogenesis and lipogenesis related genes such as CCAAT/enhancer binding protein α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, adipocyte protein 2, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, and fatty acid synthase in epididymal adipose tissues. SPE treatment induced the protein expression of carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1, which might have promoted phosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase-medicated ß-oxidation. The present study reveals an anti-adipogenic, anti-lipogenic, ß-oxidation effects of SPE in vivo and represents AMP-activated protein kinase signaling as targets for SPE.

SfGPX regulates low-temperature tolerance by affecting velocity and intensity of Ca2+ transfer and photosynthetic characteristics in interfered Spiraea fritschiana and overexpressed Spiraea japonica 'Gold Mound'.

Genes play regulatory roles in plants' response to low-temperature stress. Our understanding of the mechanism of plants' response to low-temperature stress can be expanded by studying the functions of these genes. SfGPX was cloned from Spiraea fritschiana (S. fritschiana) with the highest low-temperature tolerance, to explore the molecular mechanisms of SfGPX in response to low-temperature stress and the physiological mechanisms involved in the regulation of SfGPX to adapt to low temperature, in two species of Spiraea. SfGPX, which was localized in the cytoplasm, was induced by low temperature. The low-temperature tolerance of Spiraea fritschiana was decreased via the interference of SfGPX, and the low-temperature tolerance of Spiraea japonica 'Gold Mound' (S. japonica 'Gold Mound') was elevated via the overexpression of SfGPX. Under low-temperature stress, the photosynthetic capacity of two species of Spiraea was affected by SfGPX; it was higher in the cold-tolerant plants and lower in the cold-intolerant plants. Under low-temperature stress, the transfer intensity of Ca2+ was affected by SfGPX. The transfer intensity of cold-tolerant plants with lower influx level of Ca2+ kinetics was weaker than that of cold-intolerant plants. Under low-temperature stress, the transfer velocity of Ca2+ was affected by SfGPX, and there were slower effluxes of Ca2+ from Ca2+ reservoir in cold-tolerant plants than in cold-intolerant plants. The above results indicate that the response of Spiraea to low temperature is regulated by SfGPX through affecting photosynthetic capacity as well as intensity and velocity of Ca2+ transfer in response to low temperature in Spiraea.

Complete genome sequences of two isolates of spiraea yellow leafspot virus (genus Badnavirus) from Spiraea x bumalda 'Anthony Waterer'.

The complete genome sequences of two isolates of spiraea yellow leafspot virus (SYLSV) were determined. Spiraea (Spiraea x bumalda) 'Anthony Waterer' plants showing virus-like symptoms including yellow spotting and leaf deformation were used for sequencing. The viral genome of SYLSV-MN (Minnesota) and SYLSV-MD (Maryland) is 8,017bp in length. The sequences share 95% identity at the nucleotide level. Both isolates have the same genome organization containing three open reading frames (ORFs), with ORF3 being the largest, encoding a putative polyprotein of 232 kDa with conserved domains including a zinc finger, pepsin-like aspartate protease, reverse transcriptase (RT), and RNase H. Pairwise comparisons between members of the genus Badnavirus showed that gooseberry vein banding associated virus GB1 (HQ852248) and rubus yellow net virus isolate Baumforth's Seedling A (KM078034) were the closest related virus sequences to SYLSV, sharing 73% identity at the nucleotide level. Bacilliform virions with dimensions of 150 nm × 30 nm were observed in virus preparations from symptomatic, but not asymptomatic, plants.

Phytoconstituents and Bioactivity of Plants of the Genus Spiraea L. (Rosaceae): A Review.

The genus Spiraea L. belongs to the Rosaceae Juss. family and includes more than 100 species distributed in the temperate zone and subtropical zone of the Northern Hemisphere at the center of species diversity in East Asia. Representatives of the genus are known as ornamental plants with many forms and varieties, are widely used in conventional medicine, and have a high resource potential. This review provides information on the diversity of phenolic compounds (flavonoids, phenolcarboxylic acids, and lignans), terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, and other classes of secondary metabolites in the species of Spiraea worldwide. The article also presents little-known and hard-to-find data published in Russian concerning Spiraea phytochemistry. The biological activities of extracts and their fractions and of individual compounds having different types of biological activity (e.g., antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antifungal) are discussed. Data about biotechnological research on representatives of the genus Spiraea are presented too. The analysis of the literature showed that further chemical and pharmacological studies on Spiraea plants are quite promising.

Invasive populations of Spiraea tomentosa (Rosaceae) are genetically diverse but decline during succession in forest habitats.

Population genetic and ecological data may help to control invasive plants, which are considered a major threat to natural habitats. In contrast to expected bottleneck events, genetic diversity of such invasive populations may be high due to extensive propagule pressure or admixture. The ecological impact of invasive species has been broadly evaluated in the field; however, long-term studies on the fate of invasive plants are scarce. We analysed genetic diversity and structure in invasive Spiraea tomentosa populations in eastern Germany and western Poland using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism. Potential hybridization between co-occurring diploid Sp. tomentosa and tetraploid Sp. douglasii was investigated using Flow Cytometry. The genetic analyses were complemented by data from a 13-year vegetation study in an area invaded by these Spiraea species. We found no evidence for hybridization between Spiraea species. In populations of Sp. tomentosa both genetic diversity (He = 0.26) and genetic structure (ΦPT = 0.27) were high and comparable to other outcrossing woody plants. Low levels of clonality, presence of seedlings and new patches in sites that had been colonized over the last 13 years imply that populations spread via sexual reproduction. In all habitat types, native species diversity declined following Sp. tomentosa invasion. However, detailed aerial mapping of a forest reserve with ongoing succession revealed that Spiraea spp. populations have declined over a 10-year period. Despite its potential for dispersal and negative effects on native plant communities, invasive Spiraea populations may be controlled by increasing canopy cover in forest habitats.

Brahucins A and B, new triterpene lactones from Spiraea brahuica.

Brahucins A (1) and B (2), the new oleanane-type triterpene lactones, have been isolated from the EtOAc-soluble fraction of Spiraea brahuica Boiss, along with betulinic acid (3), oleanolic acid (4), 3-O-(ß-D-glucopyranosyl) oleanolic acid (5), vanillic acid (6) and caffeic acid (7), reported for the first time from this species. The structures of these compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic studies including MS, IR, 1D and 2D NMR.

Characterization and Comparison of Two Complete Plastomes of Rosaceae Species (Potentilla dickinsii var. glabrata and Spiraea insularis) Endemic to Ulleung Island, Korea.

Potentilla dickinsii var. glabrata and Spiraea insularis in the family Rosaceae are species endemic to Ulleung Island, Korea, the latter of which is listed as endangered. In this study, we characterized the complete plastomes of these two species and compared these with previously reported plastomes of other Ulleung Island endemic species of Rosaceae (Cotoneaster wilsonii, Prunus takesimensis, Rubus takesimensis, and Sorbus ulleungensis). The highly conserved complete plastomes of P. dickinsii var. glabrata and S. insularis are 158,637 and 155,524 base pairs with GC contents of 37% and 36.9%, respectively. Comparative phylogenomic analysis identified three highly variable intergenic regions (trnT-UGU/trnL-UAA, rpl32/trnL-UAG, and ndhF/rpl32) and one variable genic region (ycf1). Only 14 of the 75 protein-coding genes have been subject to strong purifying selection. Phylogenetic analysis of 23 representative plastomes within the Rosaceae supported the monophyly of Potentilla and the sister relationship between Potentilla and Fragaria and indicated that S. insularis is sister to a clade containing Cotoneaster, Malus, Pyrus, and Sorbus. The plastome resources generated in this study will contribute to elucidating the plastome evolution of insular endemic Rosaceae on Ulleung Island and also in assessing the genetic consequences of anagenetic speciation for various endemic lineages on the island.

Tracking Pesticide Residues to a Plant Genus Using Palynology in Pollen Trapped from Honey Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) at Ornamental Plant Nurseries.

Worldwide studies have used the technique of pollen trapping, collecting pollen loads from returning honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) foragers, to evaluate the exposure of honey bees to pesticides through pollen and as a biomonitoring tool. Typically, these surveys have found frequent contamination of pollen with multiple pesticides, with most of the estimated risk of acute oral toxicity to honey bees coming from insecticides. In our survey of pesticides in trapped pollen from three commercial ornamental plant nurseries in Connecticut, we found most samples within the range of acute toxicity in a previous state pollen survey, but a few samples at one nursery with unusually high acute oral toxicity. Using visual sorting by color of the pollen pellets collected in two samples from this nursery, followed by pesticide analysis of the sorted pollen and palynology to identify the plant sources of the pollen with the greatest acute toxicity of pesticide residues, we were able to associate pollen from the plant genus Spiraea L. (Rosales: Rosaceae) with extraordinarily high concentrations of thiamethoxam and clothianidin, and also with high concentrations of acephate and its metabolite methamidophos. This study is the first to trace highly toxic pollen collected by honey bees to a single plant genus. This method of tracking high toxicity pollen samples back to potential source plants could identify additional high-risk combinations of pesticide application methods and timing, movement into pollen, and attractiveness to bees that would be difficult to identify through modeling each of the contributing factors.

Neolignan glycosides from Spiraea salicifolia and their inhibitory activity on pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 production in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.

Phytochemical investigation of the ethanol extract from the roots of Spiraea salicifolia L. (Rosaceae) led to the isolation of one new neolignan glycoside, (7S,8R)-3,5-dimethoxy-4',7-epoxy-8,5'-neolignan-3',4,9,9'-tetraol 9-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside (1), along with two known neolignan glycosides, (7S,8R)-3-methoxy-4',7-epoxy-8,5'-neolignan-3',4,9,9'-tetraol 9-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside (2) and (7R,8S)-dihydrodehydrodiconiferyl alcohol 9'-O-ß-d-glucopyranoside (3). The structural characterisations of the isolated compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic data and comparison with the literatures reported on the chemical constituents from Juniperus communis var. depressa. All compounds were isolated for the first time from the Spiraea genus. Furthermore, the isolated compounds were subjected to assay inhibitory activity on pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 production in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and all the compounds showed anti-inflammatory effects.

Evaluation on the effects of 0.1% Peumus boldus leaf and Spiraea ulmaria plant extract combination on bacterial colonization in canine atopic dermatitis: A preliminary randomized, placebo controlled, double-blinded study.

Defective skin barrier characterize canine atopic dermatitis (AD). Pyoderma is the most common complication. Herbal compounds have been suggested as alternatives to control bacterial colonization for their effect on natural antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). This study evaluated the effects of 0.1% Peumus boldus leaf and Spiraea ulmaria plant extract combination on clinical signs, bacterial colonization and AMPs secretion in atopic dogs compared to placebo. Twenty privately-owned atopic dogs were randomly divided in 2 groups (treatment: n = 10; placebo: n = 10) and their abdomen was sprayed every 24 h for 4 weeks. Total and inguinal clinical scores (CADESI-03), manual bacterial count, and skin washes for AMPs (cBD3-like and cCath) were performed on days 0, 14 and 28. AMPs were detected using in-house, previously-validated, canine-specific ELISAs. Data were statistically analyzed and a p < 0.05 was considered significant. Clinical scores and AMPs secretion did not differ significantly between the two groups at any time point. A significant reduction of the clinical scores was seen in the placebo group at 14 and 28 days (p < 0.04). On days 14 and 28, a reduction in the bacterial count was seen in the treated group compared with placebo (p < 0.009 and p = 0.04, respectively). Compared to baseline, a reduction in Staphylococcus spp. was seen in the treated group after 14 days of treatment (p < 0.03). These results show the efficacy of this plant extract combination against bacterial colonization, suggesting its potential usefulness in preventing bacterial infection in atopic dogs. The influence of this compound on AMPs secretion or other mechanisms should be further evaluated.

Spiroides shrubs on Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau: Multilocus phylogeography and palaeodistributional reconstruction of Spiraea alpina and S. Mongolica (Rosaceae).

A common hypothesis for the rich biodiversity found in mountains is uplift-driven diversification. Using a multilocus approach, here we assessed the influence of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) uplift and fluctuating regional climate on genetic diversity of two sister spiroides shrubs, Spiraea alpina and S. mongolica. Combined with palaeodistributional reconstruction modelling, we investigated the current and past-predicted distribution of these species under different climatic episodes. The study demonstrated that continuous pulses of retreat and expansion during last glacial-interglacial episodes, combined with the uplifting of QTP shaped the current distribution of these species. All the populations showed high level of genetic diversity based on both cpDNA and SSR markers. The average gene diversity within populations based on cpDNA markers was 0.383 ±â€¯0.052 for S. alpina and 0.477 ±â€¯0.048 for S. mongolica. The observed and expected heterozygosities based on SSR for both Spiraea alpina and S. mongolicawere HE(0.72-0.90)/HO(0.35-0.78) and HE(0.77-0.92)/HO(0.47-0.77) respectively. Palaeodistributional reconstruction indicated species' preferences at southeastern edge of the plateau during last glacial maximum, at higher altitude areas of QTP and range expansion to central plateau during the interglacial episodes. Assignment tests in STRUCTURE, discriminant analysis of principal coordinates and Immigrants analysis in GENECLASS based on nuclear SSR markers did not support the hypothesis of gene flow between both the species. However, maximum likelihood approach based on cpDNA showed sharing of haplotypes between both species.

Phytochemical and pharmacological investigation of Spiraea chamaedryfolia: a contribution to the chemotaxonomy of Spiraea genus.

OBJECTIVE: Diterpene alkaloids are secondary plant metabolites and chemotaxonomical markers with a strong biological activity. These compounds are characteristic for the Ranunculaceae family, while their occurrence in other taxa is rare. Several species of the Spiraea genus (Rosaceae) are examples of this rarity. Screening Spiraea species for alkaloid content is a chemotaxonomical approach to clarify the classification and phylogeny of the genus. Novel pharmacological findings make further investigations of Spiraea diterpene alkaloids promising. RESULTS: Seven Spiraea species were screened for diterpene alkaloids. Phytochemical and pharmacological investigations were performed on Spiraea chamaedryfolia, the species found to contain diterpene alkaloids. Its alkaloid-rich fractions were found to exert a remarkable xanthine-oxidase inhibitory activity and a moderate antibacterial activity. The alkaloid distribution within the root was clarified by microscopic techniques.

Enhancing stress growth traits as well as phytochemical and antioxidant contents of Spiraea and Pittosporum under seaweed extract treatments.

Seaweed extracts (SWE) might play an important role in enhancing growth and phytochemical composition of medicinal shrubs. In this study, we investigate the morphological, physiological and biochemical effects of irrigation levels (100% and 50% of the evapotranspiration rate) coupled with a weekly treatment of SWE of Ascophyllum nodosum at 5 and 7 mL L(-1) as a soil drench or foliar spray on Spiraea nipponica "Snowmound" and Pittosporum eugenioides "Variegatum" grown in containers under controlled greenhouse conditions. In addition, the phenolic and flavonoid content, antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation in both plant species was largely enhanced while the proline accumulation was reduced. After 8 weeks of treatments, drought condition reduced plant vegetative growth and gas exchange, as well as leaf water potential, but increased the phenolic and flavonoid contents in leaves, their antioxidant capacities and proline content. The application of SWE enhanced the performance of both species during mild drought conditions by means of increasing leaf number and area, dry weights, plant height, gas exchange and leaf water potential. The maximum vegetative growth, physiological performance and phytochemical composition of both species was achieved using the drench SWE treatments (5 and 7 mL L(-1)) in moderate drought conditions, which improved the plant water status, stomatal conductance, and photosynthetic rate. SWE enhanced plant growth and the phytochemical composition and antioxidant capacity of plant leaves of both species during moderate drought conditions.