BDNF promotes neuronal survival after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy by up-regulating Stx1b and suppressing VDAC1.

Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), is a major cause of neurologic disorders in terms of neonates, with the unclear underlying mechanisms. In the study, triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining and Zea-longa score were performed to examine the neurologic damage in hypoxia and ischemia (HI) rats. The results showed that HI induced obviously infarct and serious neurologic impairment in neonatal rats. Then, protein chip was applied to detect the differential expression genes in cortex and hippocampus and found the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) down-regulated both in cortex and hippocampus. Moreover, low expression of BDNF after HI in right cortex and hippocampus was validate by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and Western Blotting (WB). Afterwards, overexpressing and interfering HSV vector were produced, then verified by immunofluorescent staining and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The results of Tuj1 staining indicated that overexpression of BDNF could promote axonal regeneration and inhibit neuron swelling, whereas BDNF interference take an opposite effect after Oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) injury. Finally, the interaction network among BDNF and associated proteins as examined by Genemania and confirmed by qRT-PCR. We found that the expression of VDAC1 was decreased and Stx1b was increased when BDNF overexpressing, which indicated that BDNF promoted neurite regrowth after OGD might be related to downregulation of VDAC1 and upregulation of Stx1b. Our results might provide novel strategy for the treatment of neurological defects induced by cerebral ischemia and hypoxia.

Changes in concentrations of NMDA receptor subunit GluN2B, Arc and syntaxin-1 in dorsal hippocampus Schaffer collateral synapses in a rat learned helplessness model of depression.

Major depressive disorder involves changes in synaptic structure and function, but the molecular underpinnings of these changes are still not established. In an initial pilot experiment, whole-brain synaptosome screening with quantitative western blotting was performed to identify synaptic proteins that may show concentration changes in a congenital rat learned helplessness model of depression. We found that the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) subunits GluN2A/GluN2B, activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc) and syntaxin-1 showed significant concentration differences between congenitally learned helpless (LH) and nonlearned helpless (NLH) rats. Having identified these three proteins, we then performed more elaborate quantitative immunogold electron microscopic analyses of the proteins in a specific synapse type in the dorsal hippocampus: the Schaffer collateral synapse in the CA1 region. We expanded the setup to include also unstressed wild-type (WT) rats. The concentrations of the proteins in the LH and NLH groups were compared to WT animals. In this specific synapse, we found that the concentration of NMDARs was increased in postsynaptic spines in both LH and NLH rats. The concentration of Arc was significantly increased in postsynaptic densities in LH animals as well as in presynaptic cytoplasm of NLH rats. The concentration of syntaxin-1 was significantly increased in both presynaptic terminals and postsynaptic spines in LH animals, while pre- and postsynaptic syntaxin-1 concentrations were significantly decreased in NLH animals. These protein changes suggest pathways by which synaptic plasticity may be increased in dorsal hippocampal Schaffer collateral synapses during depression, corresponding to decreased synaptic stability.

The panel of syntaxin 1 and insulinoma-associated protein 1 outperforms classic neuroendocrine markers in pulmonary neuroendocrine neoplasms.

Syntaxin-1 (STX1) is a recently described highly sensitive and specific neuroendocrine marker. We evaluated the applicability of STX1 as an immunohistochemical marker in pulmonary neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs). We compared STX1 with established neuroendocrine markers, including insulinoma-associated protein 1 (INSM1). Typical carcinoids (n = 33), atypical carcinoids (n = 7), small cell lung carcinomas ([SCLCs] n = 30), and large cell neuroendocrine lung carcinomas (n = 17) were immunostained using tissue microarray for STX1, chromogranin A, synaptophysin, CD56, and INSM1. Eighty-four of eighty-seven (96.5%) NENs showed STX1 positivity. Carcinoids and LCNECs typically presented a combined strong membranous and weak cytoplasmic staining pattern; cytoplasmic expression was predominately observed in SCLCs. The sensitivity of STX1 was 90% in SCLCs and 100% in typical carcinoids, atypical carcinoids, and large cell neuroendocrine lung carcinomas. The overall sensitivity of STX1 in pulmonary NENs was 96.6%, and the sensitivity of the other markers was as follows: chromogranin A (85.2%), synaptophysin (85.2%), CD56 (92.9%), and INSM1 (97.7%). STX1 was found to be an excellent neuroendocrine marker of pulmonary NENs, with sensitivity and specificity surpassing that of classic markers. We propose a panel of STX1 and INSM1 for the routine immunohistochemical workup of pulmonary NENs.

Syntaxin 1A Gene Is Negatively Regulated in a Cell/Tissue Specific Manner by YY1 Transcription Factor, Which Binds to the -183 to -137 Promoter Region Together with Gene Silencing Factors Including Histone Deacetylase.

The HPC-1/syntaxin 1A (Stx1a) gene, which is involved in synaptic transmission and neurodevelopmental disorders, is a TATA-less gene with several transcription start sites. It is activated by the binding of Sp1 and acetylated histone H3 to the -204 to +2 core promoter region (CPR) in neuronal cell/tissue. Furthermore, it is depressed by the association of class 1 histone deacetylases (HDACs) to Stx1a-CPR in non-neuronal cell/tissue. To further clarify the factors characterizing Stx1a gene silencing in non-neuronal cell/tissue not expressing Stx1a, we attempted to identify the promoter region forming DNA-protein complex only in non-neuronal cells. Electrophoresis mobility shift assays (EMSA) demonstrated that the -183 to -137 OL2 promoter region forms DNA-protein complex only in non-neuronal fetal rat skin keratinocyte (FRSK) cells which do not express Stx1a. Furthermore, the Yin-Yang 1 (YY1) transcription factor binds to the -183 to -137 promoter region of Stx1a in FRSK cells, as shown by competitive EMSA and supershift assay. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assay revealed that YY1 in vivo associates to Stx1a-CPR in cell/tissue not expressing Stx1a and that trichostatin A treatment in FRSK cells decreases the high-level association of YY1 to Stx1a-CPR in default. Reporter assay indicated that YY1 negatively regulates Stx1a transcription. Finally, mass spectrometry analysis showed that gene silencing factors, including HDAC1, associate onto the -183 to -137 promoter region together with YY1. The current study is the first to report that Stx1a transcription is negatively regulated in a cell/tissue-specific manner by YY1 transcription factor, which binds to the -183 to -137 promoter region together with gene silencing factors, including HDAC.

Construction of functional chimeras of syntaxin-1A and its yeast orthologue, and their application to the yeast cell-based assay for botulinum neurotoxin serotype C.

BACKGROUND: Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) prevent synaptic transmission because they hydrolyze synaptic N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs). BoNT serotype C (BoNT/C) targets syntaxin-1A and SNAP-25, and is expected to be applied to cosmetic and therapeutic uses. SNAREs are evolutionally conserved proteins and in yeast a syntaxin-1A orthologue Sso1 is involved in exocytosis. The substrate specificity of BoNT/C is strict and it cannot cleave Sso1. METHODS: Domain swapping and mutational screenings were performed to generate functional chimeras SNAREs of syntaxin-1A and Sso1. Such chimeras are expressed in yeast cells and assessed whether they are susceptible to BoNT/C digestion. RESULTS: The Sso1 and syntaxin-1A chimera (Sso1/STX1A), in which the SNARE domain in Sso1 was replaced with that of syntaxin-1A, was not functional in yeast. The functional incompatibility of Sso1/STX1A was attributable to its accumulation in the ER. We found several mutations that could release Sso1/STX1A from the ER to make the chimera functional in yeast. Yeast cells harboring the mutant chimeras grew similarly to wild-type cells. However, unlike wild-type, yeast harboring the mutant chimeras exhibited a severe growth defect upon expression of BoNT/C. Results of further domain swapping analyses suggest that Sso1 is not digested by BoNT/C because it lacks a binding region to BoNT/C (α-exosite-binding region). CONCLUSIONS: We obtained functional Sso1/STX1A chimeras, which can be applied to a yeast cell-based BoNT/C assay. BoNT/C can recognize these chimeras in a similar manner to syntaxin-1A. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: The yeast cell-based BoNT/C assay would be useful to characterize and engineer BoNT/C.

Human R1441C LRRK2 regulates the synaptic vesicle proteome and phosphoproteome in a Drosophila model of Parkinson's disease.

Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause late-onset, autosomal dominant familial Parkinson`s disease (PD) and variation at the LRRK2 locus contributes to the risk for idiopathic PD. LRRK2 can function as a protein kinase and mutations lead to increased kinase activity. To elucidate the pathophysiological mechanism of the R1441C mutation in the GTPase domain of LRRK2, we expressed human wild-type or R1441C LRRK2 in dopaminergic neurons of Drosophila and observe reduced locomotor activity, impaired survival and an age-dependent degeneration of dopaminergic neurons thereby creating a new PD-like model. To explore the function of LRRK2 variants in vivo, we performed mass spectrometry and quantified 3,616 proteins in the fly brain. We identify several differentially-expressed cytoskeletal, mitochondrial and synaptic vesicle proteins (SV), including synaptotagmin-1, syntaxin-1A and Rab3, in the brain of this LRRK2 fly model. In addition, a global phosphoproteome analysis reveals the enhanced phosphorylation of several SV proteins, including synaptojanin-1 (pThr1131) and the microtubule-associated protein futsch (pSer4106) in the brain of R1441C hLRRK2 flies. The direct phosphorylation of human synaptojanin-1 by R1441C hLRRK2 could further be confirmed by in vitro kinase assays. A protein-protein interaction screen in the fly brain confirms that LRRK2 robustly interacts with numerous SV proteins, including synaptojanin-1 and EndophilinA. Our proteomic, phosphoproteomic and interactome study in the Drosophila brain provides a systematic analyses of R1441C hLRRK2-induced pathobiological mechanisms in this model. We demonstrate for the first time that the R1441C mutation located within the LRRK2 GTPase domain induces the enhanced phosphorylation of SV proteins in the brain.

Day-restricted feeding during pregnancy and lactation programs glucose intolerance and impaired insulin secretion in male rat offspring.

AIM: The maternal environment during pregnancy and lactation plays a determining role in programming energy metabolism in offspring. Among a myriad of maternal factors, disruptions in the light/dark cycle during pregnancy can program glucose intolerance in offspring. Out-of-phase feeding has recently been reported to influence metabolism in adult humans and rodents; however, it is not known whether this environmental factor impacts offspring metabolism when applied during pregnancy and lactation. This study aims to determine whether maternal day-restricted feeding (DF) influences energy metabolism in offspring. METHODS: Pregnant and lactating Wistar rats were subjected to ad libitum (AL) or DF during pregnancy and lactation. The offspring born to the AL and DF dams were intra- and interfostered, which resulted in 4 group types. RESULTS: The male offspring born to and breastfed by the DF dams (DF/DF off) were glucose intolerant, but without parallel insulin resistance as adults. Experiments with isolated pancreatic islets demonstrated that the male DF/DF off rats had reduced insulin secretion with no parallel disruption in calcium handling. However, this reduction in insulin secretion was accompanied by increased miRNA-29a and miRNA34a expression and decreased syntaxin 1a protein levels. CONCLUSION: We conclude that out-of-phase feeding during pregnancy and lactation can lead to glucose intolerance in male offspring, which is caused by a disruption in insulin secretion capacity. This metabolic programming is possibly caused by mechanisms dependent on miRNA modulation of syntaxin 1a.

Effect of thyroxine on munc-18 and syntaxin-1 expression in dorsal hippocampus of adult-onset hypothyroid rats.

Adult-onset hypothyroidism induces a variety of impairments on hippocampus-dependent neurocognitive functioningin which many synaptic proteins in hippocampus neurons are involved. Here, we observed the effect of adult-onset hypothyroidism on the expression of syntaxin-1 and munc-18 in the dorsal hippocampus and whether the altered proteins could be restored by levothyroxine (T4) treatment. All rats were separated into 4 groups randomly: hypothyroid group, 5 µg T4/100 g body weight (BW) treated group, 20 µg T4/100g BW treated group and control group. The radioimmunoassay kits were applied to assay the levels of serum T3 and T4, and the levels of syntaxin-1 and munc-18 in hippocampus were assessed by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. Both analysis corroborated that syntaxin-1 in the hypothyroid group was significantly higher. Munc-18 was lower in four layers of CA3 and dentate gyrus by immunohistochemistry. After two weeks of treatment with 5 µg T4/100g BW for hypothyroidism, syntaxin-1 levels were completely restored, whereas the recovery of munc-18 only located in two of the four impaired layers. Twenty µg T4/100g BW treatment normalized munc-18 levels. These data suggested that adult-onset hypothyroidism induced increment of syntaxin-1 and decrement of munc-18 in the dorsal hippocampus, which could be restored by T4 treatment. Larger dosage of T4 caused more effective restorations.

Syntaxin 1B suppresses macropinocytosis and semaphorin 3A-induced growth cone collapse.

Growth cone collapse is a crucial process for repulsive axon guidance and is accompanied by a reduction in growth cone surface area. This process of reduction may be regulated by endocytosis; however, its molecular mechanism is unclear. Macropinocytosis is a clathrin-independent form of endocytosis in which large areas of plasma membrane can be engulfed. We have reported previously that macropinocytosis is induced in growth cones of chick dorsal root ganglion neurons by semaphorin 3A (Sema3A), a repulsive axon guidance cue, and that Sema3A-induced reduction in growth cone surface area and macropinocytic vacuole area were correlated, suggesting a positive role for macropinocytosis in Sema3A-induced growth cone collapse. In the present study, we found that syntaxin 1B (Syx1B), a membrane trafficking protein, is a negative regulator of macropinocytosis, and its expression is downregulated by Sema3A signaling. Macropinocytosis inhibitor ethylisopropylamiloride or Syx1B overexpression suppressed Sema3A-induced macropinocytosis and growth cone collapse. These results indicate that Syx1B couples macropinocytosis-mediated massive internalization of the plasma membrane to Sema3A-induced growth cone collapse.

Syntaxin 1A regulates surface expression of beta-cell ATP-sensitive potassium channels.

The pancreatic ATP-sensitive potassium (K(ATP)) channel consisting of four inwardly rectifying potassium channel 6.2 (Kir6.2) and four sulfonylurea receptor SUR1 subunits plays a key role in insulin secretion by linking glucose metabolism to membrane excitability. Syntaxin 1A (Syn-1A) is a plasma membrane protein important for membrane fusion during exocytosis of insulin granules. Here, we show that Syn-1A and K(ATP) channels endogenously expressed in the insulin-secreting cell INS-1 interact. Upregulation of Syn-1A by overexpression in INS-1 leads to a decrease, whereas downregulation of Syn-1A by small interfering RNA (siRNA) leads to an increase, in surface expression of K(ATP) channels. Using COSm6 cells as a heterologous expression system for mechanistic investigation, we found that Syn-1A interacts with SUR1 but not Kir6.2. Furthermore, Syn-1A decreases surface expression of K(ATP) channels via two mechanisms. One mechanism involves accelerated endocytosis of surface channels. The other involves decreased biogenesis and processing of channels in the early secretory pathway. This regulation is K(ATP) channel specific as Syn-1A has no effect on another inward rectifier potassium channel Kir3.1/3.4. Our results demonstrate that in addition to a previously documented role in modulating K(ATP) channel gating, Syn-1A also regulates K(ATP) channel expression in ß-cells. We propose that physiological or pathological changes in Syn-1A expression may modulate insulin secretion by altering glucose-secretion coupling via changes in K(ATP) channel expression.

Possible involvement of syntaxin 1A downregulation in the late phase of allodynia induced by peripheral nerve injury.

Syntaxin 1A is a membrane protein playing an integral role in exocytosis and membrane trafficking. The superficial dorsal horn (SDH) of the spinal cord, where nociceptive synaptic transmission is modulated, is rich in this protein. We recently reported that peripheral nerve ligation-induced nociceptive responses are considerably enhanced in syntaxin 1A-knockout mice [Takasusuki T, Fujiwara T, Yamaguchi S, Fukushima T, Akagawa K, Hori Y (2007) Eur J Neurosci 26:2179-2187]. On the basis of this earlier finding, we hypothesized that syntaxin 1A is involved in peripheral nerve injury-induced nociceptive plasticity. In this study, we examined this hypothesis by using nociceptive behavioral studies and tight-seal whole-cell recordings from neurons in the SDH of adult mouse spinal cord slices. Partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL) in adult male Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice increased the frequency of spontaneous miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs). The amplitude of the mEPSCs did not exhibit any changes, suggesting that peripheral nerve injury is associated with increased synaptic release of excitatory neurotransmitters. Western blot and real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analyses revealed that PSNL gradually decreased the expression level of syntaxin 1A in the spinal SDH. This downregulation of syntaxin 1A took several days to develop, whereas behavioral allodynia developed within one day after PSNL. Syntaxin 1A knockdown by intrathecal injection of an antisense oligodeoxynucleotide against the syntaxin 1A gene led to the gradual development of allodynia. These results indicate a possible involvement of syntaxin 1A downregulation in the late maintenance phase of peripheral nerve injury-induced allodynia. In addition, syntaxin 1A knockdown by ribonucleic acid interference enhanced the axonal elongation and sprouting of spinal dorsal horn neurons in culture, suggesting that PSNL-induced syntaxin 1A downregulation may result in the rearrangement of the synaptic connections between neurons in the spinal dorsal horn. Taken together, it is possible to conclude that syntaxin 1A might be involved in spinal nociceptive plasticity induced by peripheral nerve injury.

Immunohistochemical localization of SNARE proteins in dental pulp and periodontal ligament of the rat incisor.

Distribution of three soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins, syntaxin-1, synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP-25), and vesicle-associated membrane protein-2 (VAMP-2), was examined in dental pulp and periodontal ligament of the rat incisor. In the trigeminal ganglion, syntaxin-1 and SNAP-25 immunoreactivity was predominately detected in medium- to large-sized neurons. Most syntaxin-1 immunoreactive neurons expressed SNAP-25. In contrast, VAMP-2 was localized in small- to medium-sized neurons and in slender-shaped cells surrounding SNAP-25-immunopositive neurons. When the inferior alveolar nerve, one of the mandibular nerve branches innervating the dental pulp and periodontal ligament, was ligated, SNARE proteins accumulated at the site proximal to the ligation. In the incisor dental pulp, all nerve fibers displayed immunoreactivity for syntaxin-1, SNAP-25, and VAMP-2. In the periodontal ligament of the incisor, almost all nerve fibers displayed both syntaxin-1 and SNAP-25 immunoreactivity, but lacked VAMP-2 immunoreactivity. SNAP-25 protein expression was localized around the vesicle membranes at the axon terminal of the periodontal mechanoreceptors. These present data suggest that these three SNARE proteins are synthesized at the trigeminal ganglion, transported centrally and peripherally, and expressed in sensory endings where apparent synapses are not present. Because those proteins participate in docking and exocytosis of synapse vesicles in the central nervous system, they might also contribute to vesicle exocytosis at receptive fields where apparent synapses are not present.

Effects of methylphenidate: the cellular point of view.

The psychostimulant methylphenidate (MPH) is the first choice of treatment in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and is based mainly on inhibition of dopamine transporter (DAT). Nonetheless, the complete cellular effects of MPH are still unknown. We attempted to determine whether MPH influences neurotransmitter levels, synaptic gene expression, and cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner in rat pheochromocytoma cells (PC12) lacking DAT. PC12 were treated in a dose-dependent manner with MPH. Gene expression level of synaptotagmin (Syt) 1 and 4, syntaxin 1a (Stx1a), and synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2C (SV2C) was measured using quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Different Neurotransmitter release was measured using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Differences in cell proliferation were evaluated via BrdU incorporation. Treatment with low-dose MPH (1-100 nM) altered intra-/extracellular neurotransmitter levels, down-regulated all investigated genes as well as enhanced cell proliferation significantly. These data point to diverse effects of MPH on cell metabolism independent of inhibiting DAT.

Interaction of syntaxin 1A with the N-terminus of Kv4.2 modulates channel surface expression and gating.

Kv4.2 channels are responsible in the heart for the Ca2+-independent transient outward currents and are important in regulating myocardial excitability and Ca2+ homeostasis. We have identified previously the expression of syntaxin 1A (STX1A) on the cardiac ventricular myocyte plasma membranes, and its modulation of cardiac ATP-sensitive K+ channels. We speculated that STX1A interacts with other cardiac ion channels, thus we examined the interaction of STX1A with Kv4.2 channels. Co-immunoprecipitation and GST pulldown assays demonstrated a direct interaction of STX1A with the Kv4.2 N-terminus. We next investigated the functional alterations of Kv4.2 gating by STX1A in Xenopus oocytes. Coexpression of Kv4.2 with STX1A (1) resulted in a reduction of Kv4.2 current amplitude; (2) caused a depolarizing shift of the steady-state inactivation curve; (3) enhanced the rate of current decay; and (4) accelerated the rate of recovery from inactivation. Additional coexpression of botulinum neurotoxin C, which cleaves STX1A, reversed the effects of STX1A on Kv4.2. STX1A inhibited partially the gating changes by KChIP2, suggesting a competitive interaction of these proteins for an overlapping binding region on the N-terminus of Kv4.2. Indeed, the N-terminal truncation mutants of Kv4.2 (Kv4.2Delta2-40 and Kv4.2Delta7-11), which form part of the KChIP2 binding site, displayed reduced sensitivity to STX1A modulation. Our study suggests that STX1A directly modulates Kv4.2 current amplitude and gating through its interaction with an overlapping region of the KChIP binding motif domain on the Kv4.2 N-terminus.

SNAP-23 and syntaxin-2 localize to the extracellular surface of the platelet plasma membrane.

SNARE proteins direct membrane fusion events required for platelet granule secretion. These proteins are oriented in cell membranes such that most of the protein resides in a cytosolic compartment. Evaluation of SNARE protein localization in activated platelets using immunonanogold staining and electron microscopy, however, demonstrated expression of SNAP-23 and syntaxin-2 on the extracellular surface of the platelet plasma membrane. Flow cytometry of intact platelets confirmed trypsin-sensitive SNAP-23 and syntaxin-2 localization to the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. Acyl-protein thioesterase 1 and botulinum toxin C light chain released SNAP-23 and syntaxin-2, respectively, from the surface of intact platelets. When resting platelets were incubated with both acyl-protein thioesterase 1 and botulinum toxin C light chain, a complex that included both SNAP-23 and syntaxin-2 was detected in supernatants, indicating that extracellular SNARE proteins retain their ability to bind one another. These observations represent the first description of SNARE proteins on the extracellular surface of a cell.

A dominant-negative variant of SNAP-23 decreases the cell surface expression of the neuronal glutamate transporter EAAC1 by slowing constitutive delivery.

A family of high-affinity transporters controls the extracellular concentration of glutamate in the brain, ensuring appropriate excitatory signaling and preventing excitotoxicity. There is evidence that one of the neuronal glutamate transporters, EAAC1, is rapidly recycled on and off the plasma membrane with a half-life of no more than 5-7 min in both C6 glioma cells and cortical neurons. Syntaxin 1A has been implicated in the trafficking of several neurotransmitter transporters and in the regulation of EAAC1, but it has not been determined if this SNARE protein is required for EAAC1 trafficking. Expression of two different sets of SNARE proteins was examined in C6 glioma with Western blotting. These cells did not express syntaxin 1A, vesicle-associated membrane protein-1 (VAMP1), or synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP-25), but did express a family of SNARE proteins that has been implicated in glucose transporter trafficking, including syntaxin 4, vesicle-associated membrane protein-2 (VAMP2), and synaptosomal-associated protein of 23 kDa (SNAP-23). cDNAs encoding variants of SNAP-23 were co-transfected with Myc-tagged EAAC1 to determine if SNAP-23 function was required for maintenance of EAAC1 surface expression. Expression of a dominant-negative variant of SNAP-23 that lacks a domain required for SNARE complex assembly decreased the fraction of EAAC1 found on the cell surface and decreased total EAAC1 expression, while two control constructs had no effect. The dominant-negative variant of SNAP-23 also slowed the rate of EAAC1 delivery to the plasma membrane. These data strongly suggest that syntaxin 1A is not required for EAAC1 trafficking and provide evidence that SNAP-23 is required for constitutive recycling of EAAC1.

Changes in syntaxin-1B mRNA in the nucleus accumbens of amphetamine-sensitized rats.

Repeated administration of amphetamine in animals induces persistent changes in dopamine (DA) functions and behaviour. These changes may be mediated by altered plasticity of the mesocorticolimbic DA system. We have previously reported changes in the content of axonal plasma membrane protein syntaxin-1 in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) of amphetamine-sensitized rats. In the present investigation, we investigated whether syntaxin-1 changes are derived from transcriptional events, i.e. mRNA changes, in the mesocorticolimbic DA regions of the brain. Behavioural sensitization was induced in adult Sprague-Dawley rats by repeated intermittent administration of d-amphetamine (1.5 mg/kg i.p. for 5 alternate days). The animals were sacrificed 24 h, 7 d or 14 d after the last injection and in-situ hybridization using oligonucleotide probes was employed to assess the expression of syntaxin-1A and -1B mRNAs. Results show that the expression of syntaxin-1B mRNA was significantly increased in the NAc shell (NAcS) region in the amphetamine-sensitized rats 14 d after the drug treatment compared to saline pretreated or untreated control animals No significant change in syntaxin-1B mRNA was observed in animals sacrificed 24 h or 7 d after the sensitizing regimen of amphetamine in any brain region analysed, namely NAcS, NAc core (NAcC), caudate putamen (CPu), ventral tegmental area (VTA) or medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Levels of syntaxin1A mRNA were not significantly different from controls in any brain region at any time-point. These results suggest that syntaxin-1 protein changes in amphetamine-sensitized rats may be due to increased syntaxin-1B gene expression within local neurons of the NAcS that may lead to altered exocytosis from these neurons during the expression of sensitized response.

Epimorphin overexpression in the mouse mammary gland promotes alveolar hyperplasia and mammary adenocarcinoma.

Epimorphin/syntaxin-2 (EPM) is a plasma membrane-anchored protein that has at least two distinct functions depending on its membrane topology: vesicle fusion when localized to the cytoplasmic surface and morphogenic signaling when localized to the extracellular surface. Transgenic mice that express full-length extracellular EPM fused to the NH2-terminal signal sequence of interleukin-2, under the control of the whey acidic protein (WAP) gene promoter, exhibit aberrant mammary gland morphogenesis associated with increased expression of CCAAT enhancer binding protein beta (C/EBPbeta). Here we report that aged nulliparous and uniparous female WAP-EPM transgenic mice develop alveolar hyperplasias and well-differentiated adenocarcinomas that express high levels of C/EBPbeta, keratin-14, matrix metalloproteinase-3, and beta-catenin. This study reveals another pathway in which overexpression and alteration of a normal morphogenic process promote the development of cancer in the mammary gland.