Examining attentional control deficits in adolescents with test anxiety: An evidential synthesis using self-report, behavioral, and resting-state EEG measures.

Attentional control theory suggests that test anxiety hinders individuals' attentional control, aiding our understanding of how test anxiety may impair cognitive function. However, various methods used to assess attentional control have yielded inconsistent findings. Moreover, past studies, especially on adolescents, that examine the distinct impacts of worry and the emotional components of test anxiety on individuals' attentional control capacity are scarce. This study, using self-report, behavioral, and resting-state EEG measures, explores how worry and emotionality, impact attentional control in adolescents. It enhances our understanding of the link between test anxiety and cognitive function. Referring to the effect size from prior studies, a total of 42 adolescents took part in the study. We used the Test Anxiety Inventory, due to it can assess worry and emotionality components. We employed three widely-utilized measures of attentional control: the Attentional Control Scale (ACS), the Go/Nogo task, and resting-state electroencephalography measures (alpha oscillation and the theta/beta power ratio). Both worry and emotionality components were significantly and negatively correlated with the ACS scores. Unlike worry, emotionality demonstrated a significant positive correlation with response times for the Go trials and alpha power in the parietal cortex. These results suggest that, emotionality, but not worry, is highly correlated with attentional control deficits in adolescents. This study underscores the significance of distinguishing between the components of test anxiety, which aids in comprehending the negative impacts of test anxiety on adolescents' academic performance.

Effect of test anxiety on visual working memory capacity using evidence from event-related potentials.

This study examined the effects of test anxiety on working memory capacity. Studies have demonstrated that individuals with trait social anxiety disorder exhibit increased visual working memory capacity and that those with trait anxiety exhibit decreased working memory capacity. Test anxiety may also induce unique effects on individuals' working memory capacity, and we thus employed the change detection task to explore such effects. Participants were divided into high- and low-test anxiety groups. We used K score and contralateral delay activity (CDA) amplitude to measure working memory capacity, focusing on processing effectiveness and efficiency. The study results revealed that deficits in the working memory capacity of individuals in the high test anxiety group manifested in the CDA amplitude rather than in the K score. The CDA amplitude of the high test anxiety group did not increase after load 3, and that of the low test anxiety group did not increase after load 4. No difference was observed in the K scores of the two groups. The study concluded that test anxiety impairs processing efficiency but not processing effectiveness.

Differential responses of salivary cortisol, amylase, and chromogranin A to academic stress.

Salivary biomarkers have been widely used to help diagnose stress, anxiety, and/or depression. This study aimed to compare the responses of three commonly investigated salivary stress biomarkers that represent the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity (cortisol; sCort) and the sympathetic activity (alpha-amylase; sAA and chromogranin A; sCgA), using academic oral presentation as a model of stress. Twenty postgraduate dental students attended the seminar class as presenter and audience. The presenters' performances were evaluated by the instructors suggesting more stress than the audience. The saliva was collected two times: before attending class and after an academic presentation (for presenters) or during the class (for audience). The pulse rates (PR) were also recorded. The results showed that the levels of all three biomarkers, as well as PR, were significantly higher in the presenter group compared with the audience group; however, the changes were most prominent with sCort and sAA (99.56 ± 12.76% for sCort, 93.48 ± 41.29% for sAA, 16.86 ± 6.42% for sCgA, and 15.06 ± 3.41% for PR). When compared between pre-post presentation, the levels of sCgA were not different, while those of sCort and sAA were significantly increased. These results suggest more sensitive reactivity to academic stress of sCort and sAA compared with sCgA and that the response of sCgA did not necessarily follow sAA pattern even though both are claimed to reflect the sympathetic activity. More studies are needed to elucidate the roles of sCgA in stress.

Relation between spontaneous electroencephalographic theta/beta power ratio and test anxiety.

Test anxiety is associated with impaired attentional control, and spontaneous electroencephalography (EEG) theta/beta power ratio (TBR) may reflect the cortical-subcortical interactions involved in attentional control. The present study investigated how test anxiety influences spontaneous EEG TBR. Individuals undertook a 10-minute Raven's intelligence test. Spontaneous EEG data were recorded before and after the test and subsequently analyzed. TAS score showed a significant positive correlation with parietal EEG TBR before the test. Individuals with high test anxiety exhibited a significantly larger parietal EEG TBR than did individuals with low test anxiety, both before and after the test. The findings suggest that parietal spontaneous EEG TBR is related to test anxiety and can distinguish between individuals with high and low test anxiety.

Feasibility of a Virtual Reality Program in Managing Test Anxiety: A Pilot Study.

Test anxiety has been a growing problem in school-aged children, especially for students in East-Asian countries where the pressure for academic achievement is high. These students are more vulnerable to academic stress, which could further lead to anxiety disorders. For this reason, this study examined the feasibility of virtual reality (VR) test anxiety program in managing anxiety in students. A total of 22 typically developing children with varying levels of test anxiety and no history of psychiatric illnesses participated in the study (mean age = 11.6 and standard deviation [SD] = 1.84). A self-reported questionnaire measuring test anxiety, state-trait anxiety, and depression was administered. Heart rate (HR) variability and subjective anxiety were also measured to examine the changes during each of the anxiety-inducing (Exam 1 and Exam 2) and meditation (Med 1 and Med 2) sessions in the program. There was a significant difference in self-perceived anxiety during the program (p < 0.001), as well as a significant main effect of time on the standard deviation of R-R interval (p = 0.002). In addition, a significant relationship between changes in HR and perceived anxiety during Exam 1 (p = 0.003), Med 1 (p < 0.001), and Med 2 (p = 0.011) was found. In conclusion, this work demonstrates the feasibility of the virtual environment to induce different levels of anxiety and explores the potential use of VR program as a viable method to manage the negative emotion in students. This work shows the potential of technology-enhanced tools in addressing psychological problems in school-aged children. Further study is needed to validate the use of the program in clinical practice.

The intraocular pressure responses to oral academic examination: The influence of perceived levels of public speaking anxiety.

We examined the intraocular pressure responsiveness to oral examination stress, as well as the mediating role of the perceived levels of public speaking anxiety on intraocular pressure changes. Thirty-two university students (intervention group) publicly defended their degree final project, and intraocular pressure and perceived levels of stress were measured before and after the oral presentation, and after 10 min of recovery. The control group (n = 32) was not exposed to any stressful situation, and the dependent measures were taken at the same time points. All participants completed the public speaking anxiety scale. The intervention group exhibited higher intraocular pressure values before the oral presentation (corrected p-values<0.001), with these changes being positively associated with the perceived levels of public speaking anxiety (p < 0.001, r = 0.71). Our results reveal a mediating role of public speaking anxiety on the intraocular pressure responsiveness to oral examination stress, and highlight the utility of intraocular pressure as an indicator of stress in applied situations.