Single and mixture effects of bisphenol A and benzophenone-3 on in vitro T helper cell differentiation.

Immune homeostasis is key to guarantee that the immune system can elicit effector functions against pathogens and at the same time raise tolerance towards other antigens. A disturbance of this delicate balance may underlie or at least trigger pathologies. Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are increasingly recognized as risk factors for immune dysregulation. However, the immunotoxic potential of specific EDCs and their mixtures is still poorly understood. Thus, we aimed to investigate the effect of bisphenol A (BPA) and benzophenone-3 (BP-3), alone and in combination, on in vitro differentiation of T helper (TH)17 cells and regulatory T (Treg) cells. Naïve T cells were isolated from mouse lymphoid tissues and differentiated into the respective TH population in the presence of 0.001-10 µM BP-3 and/or 0.01-100 µM BPA. Cell viability, proliferation and the expression of TH lineage specific transcription factors and cytokines was measured by flow cytometry and CBA/ELISA. Moreover, the transcription of hormone receptors as direct targets of EDCs was quantified by RT-PCR. We found that the highest BPA concentration adversely affected TH cell viability and proliferation. Moreover, the general differentiation potential of both TH populations was not altered in the presence of both EDCs. However, EDC exposure modulated the emergence of TH17 and Treg cell intermediate states. While BPA and BP-3 promoted the development of TH1-like TH17 cells under TH17-differentiating conditions, TH2-like Treg cells occurred under Treg polarization. Interestingly, differential effects could be observed in mixtures of the two tested compounds compared with the individual compounds. Notably, estrogen receptor ß expression was decreased under TH17-differentiating conditions in the presence of BPA and BP-3 as mixture. In conclusion, our study provides solid evidence for both, the immune disruptive potential and the existence of cumulative effects of real nature EDC mixtures on T cell in vitro differentiation.

Sphingolipid biosynthesis is essential for metabolic rewiring during TH17 cell differentiation.

T helper 17 (TH17) cells are implicated in autoimmune diseases, and several metabolic processes are shown to be important for their development and function. In this study, we report an essential role for sphingolipids synthesized through the de novo pathway in TH17 cell development. Deficiency of SPTLC1, a major subunit of serine palmitoyl transferase enzyme complex that catalyzes the first and rate-limiting step of de novo sphingolipid synthesis, impaired glycolysis in differentiating TH17 cells by increasing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) through enhancement of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 2 activity. Increased ROS leads to impaired activation of mammalian target of rapamycin C1 and reduced expression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha and c-Myc-induced glycolytic genes. SPTLCI deficiency protected mice from developing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and experimental T cell transfer colitis. Our results thus show a critical role for de novo sphingolipid biosynthetic pathway in shaping adaptive immune responses with implications in autoimmune diseases.

Class IIa HDAC4 and HDAC7 cooperatively regulate gene transcription in Th17 cell differentiation.

Class II histone deacetylases (HDACs) are important in regulation of gene transcription during T cell development. However, our understanding of their cell-specific functions is limited. In this study, we reveal that class IIa Hdac4 and Hdac7 (Hdac4/7) are selectively induced in transcription, guiding the lineage-specific differentiation of mouse T-helper 17 (Th17) cells from naive CD4+ T cells. Importantly, Hdac4/7 are functionally dispensable in other Th subtypes. Mechanistically, Hdac4 interacts with the transcription factor (TF) JunB, facilitating the transcriptional activation of Th17 signature genes such as Il17a/f. Conversely, Hdac7 collaborates with the TF Aiolos and Smrt/Ncor1-Hdac3 corepressors to repress transcription of Th17 negative regulators, including Il2, in Th17 cell differentiation. Inhibiting Hdac4/7 through pharmacological or genetic methods effectively mitigates Th17 cell-mediated intestinal inflammation in a colitis mouse model. Our study uncovers molecular mechanisms where HDAC4 and HDAC7 function distinctively yet cooperatively in regulating ordered gene transcription during Th17 cell differentiation. These findings suggest a potential therapeutic strategy of targeting HDAC4/7 for treating Th17-related inflammatory diseases, such as ulcerative colitis.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress in the intestinal epithelium initiates purine metabolite synthesis and promotes Th17 cell differentiation in the gut.

Intestinal IL-17-producing T helper (Th17) cells are dependent on adherent microbes in the gut for their development. However, how microbial adherence to intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) promotes Th17 cell differentiation remains enigmatic. Here, we found that Th17 cell-inducing gut bacteria generated an unfolded protein response (UPR) in IECs. Furthermore, subtilase cytotoxin expression or genetic removal of X-box binding protein 1 (Xbp1) in IECs caused a UPR and increased Th17 cells, even in antibiotic-treated or germ-free conditions. Mechanistically, UPR activation in IECs enhanced their production of both reactive oxygen species (ROS) and purine metabolites. Treating mice with N-acetyl-cysteine or allopurinol to reduce ROS production and xanthine, respectively, decreased Th17 cells that were associated with an elevated UPR. Th17-related genes also correlated with ER stress and the UPR in humans with inflammatory bowel disease. Overall, we identify a mechanism of intestinal Th17 cell differentiation that emerges from an IEC-associated UPR.

Immunity to the microbiota promotes sensory neuron regeneration.

Tissue immunity and responses to injury depend on the coordinated action and communication among physiological systems. Here, we show that, upon injury, adaptive responses to the microbiota directly promote sensory neuron regeneration. At homeostasis, tissue-resident commensal-specific T cells colocalize with sensory nerve fibers within the dermis, express a transcriptional program associated with neuronal interaction and repair, and promote axon growth and local nerve regeneration following injury. Mechanistically, our data reveal that the cytokine interleukin-17A (IL-17A) released by commensal-specific Th17 cells upon injury directly signals to sensory neurons via IL-17 receptor A, the transcription of which is specifically upregulated in injured neurons. Collectively, our work reveals that in the context of tissue damage, preemptive immunity to the microbiota can rapidly bridge biological systems by directly promoting neuronal repair, while also identifying IL-17A as a major determinant of this fundamental process.

Mycobacterium Vaccae Regulate γδT17 and γδTreg Cells in Mice Asthmatic Lung.

Background Dysregulation of the balance between different T cell populations is believed to be an important basis for asthma.Objective To observe the changes in γδT subtypes in transgenic asthmatic mice after aerosol inhalation of Mycobacterium vaccae, and to further investigate the mechanism of M. vaccae in asthmatic mice and its relationship with γδT cells.Methods TCR-ß-/- mice were exposed to atomized normal saline or M. vaccae for 5 days and the γδT cells from the lung tissues were isolated. Changes in γδT17 and γδTreg populations were detected. Asthma was induced in BALB/c mice using ovalbumin, which was then transplanted with control or M. vaccae-primed γδT cells. First we analyzed the content of γδT cells that secrete IL-17 (IL-17 γδT cells) and Foxp3+ γδT cells in lung tissues and then measured the content of IL-17 in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) by ELISA.Results Exposure to M. vaccae increased and decreased the relative proportions of Foxp3+ γδT cells and IL-17+ γδT cells, respectively, thereby decreasing airway reactivity and inflammation levels in asthmatic mice, and significantly decreasing IL-17 levels in BALF. Furthermore, mice treated with these primed T cells showed a decrease in IL-17+ γδT cells, and a concomitant increase in Foxp3+ γδT cells in their lung tissues. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of M. vaccae-primed γδT cells decreased GATA3 and NICD and increased T-bet in lung.Conclusions The M. vaccae-primed γδT cells alleviated the symptoms of asthma by reversing Th2 polarization in the lungs and inhibiting the Notch/GATA3 pathway.

IL-3 regulates the differentiation of pathogenic Th17 cells.

IL-17-producing Th17 cells play an important role in pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Aberrant immune activation due to an imbalance between Th17 and regulatory T (Treg) cells is associated with the development of RA and other autoimmune diseases. Targeting pathogenic Th17 cells and their associated molecules is emerging as a promising strategy to treat and reverse RA. Here, we demonstrate that IL-3 inhibits the differentiation of Th17 cells and promotes the development of Treg cells in IL-2-dependent manner. In IL-2 KO mice, we observed that IL-3 has no effect on differentiation of both Th17 and Treg cells. In addition, IL-3 decreases pathogenic IL-17A+ TNF-α+ , IL-17A+ IFN-γ+ and IL-23R+ Th17 cells, secretion of GM-CSF and IFN-γ, and osteoclastogenesis when presented in the culture together with Th17 polarizing cytokines. Mechanistically, IL-3 regulates the development of Th17 cells through the inhibition of STAT3 phosphorylation. IL-3 treatment significantly decreases the pathogenic Th17 cell responses and arthritic scores in the mouse model of RA. Importantly, IL-3 inhibits the differentiation of human Th17 cells. Thus, our results suggest a novel therapeutic role of IL-3 in the regulation of Th17 cell-mediated pathophysiology of RA.

An LKB1-mitochondria axis controls TH17 effector function.

CD4+ T cell differentiation requires metabolic reprogramming to fulfil the bioenergetic demands of proliferation and effector function, and enforce specific transcriptional programmes1-3. Mitochondrial membrane dynamics sustains mitochondrial processes4, including respiration and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle metabolism5, but whether mitochondrial membrane remodelling orchestrates CD4+ T cell differentiation remains unclear. Here we show that unlike other CD4+ T cell subsets, T helper 17 (TH17) cells have fused mitochondria with tight cristae. T cell-specific deletion of optic atrophy 1 (OPA1), which regulates inner mitochondrial membrane fusion and cristae morphology6, revealed that TH17 cells require OPA1 for its control of the TCA cycle, rather than respiration. OPA1 deletion amplifies glutamine oxidation, leading to impaired NADH/NAD+ balance and accumulation of TCA cycle metabolites and 2-hydroxyglutarate-a metabolite that influences the epigenetic landscape5,7. Our multi-omics approach revealed that the serine/threonine kinase liver-associated kinase B1 (LKB1) couples mitochondrial function to cytokine expression in TH17 cells by regulating TCA cycle metabolism and transcriptional remodelling. Mitochondrial membrane disruption activates LKB1, which restrains IL-17 expression. LKB1 deletion restores IL-17 expression in TH17 cells with disrupted mitochondrial membranes, rectifying aberrant TCA cycle glutamine flux, balancing NADH/NAD+ and preventing 2-hydroxyglutarate production from the promiscuous activity of the serine biosynthesis enzyme phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH). These findings identify OPA1 as a major determinant of TH17 cell function, and uncover LKB1 as a sensor linking mitochondrial cues to effector programmes in TH17 cells.

ZBTB46 defines and regulates ILC3s that protect the intestine.

RORγt is a lineage-specifying transcription factor that is expressed by immune cells that are enriched in the gastrointestinal tract and promote immunity, inflammation and tissue homeostasis1-15. However, fundamental questions remain with regard to the cellular heterogeneity among these cell types, the mechanisms that control protective versus inflammatory properties and their functional redundancy. Here we define all RORγt+ immune cells in the intestine at single-cell resolution and identify a subset of group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3s) that expresses ZBTB46, a transcription factor specifying conventional dendritic cells16-20. ZBTB46 is robustly expressed by CCR6+ lymphoid-tissue-inducer-like ILC3s that are developmentally and phenotypically distinct from conventional dendritic cells, and its expression is imprinted by RORγt, fine-tuned by microbiota-derived signals and increased by pro-inflammatory cytokines. ZBTB46 restrains the inflammatory properties of ILC3s, including the OX40L-dependent expansion of T helper 17 cells and the exacerbated intestinal inflammation that occurs after enteric infection. Finally, ZBTB46+ ILC3s are a major source of IL-22, and selective depletion of this population renders mice susceptible to enteric infection and associated intestinal inflammation. These results show that ZBTB46 is a transcription factor that is shared between conventional dendritic cells and ILC3s, and identify a cell-intrinsic function for ZBTB46 in restraining the pro-inflammatory properties of ILC3s and a non-redundant role for ZBTB46+ ILC3s in orchestrating intestinal health.

Differentiation of T Helper 17 Cells May Mediate the Abnormal Humoral Immunity in IgA Nephropathy and Inflammatory Bowel Disease Based on Shared Genetic Effects.

Background: IgA nephropathy (IgAN) is the most frequent glomerulonephritis in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, the inter-relational mechanisms between them are still unclear. This study aimed to explore the shared gene effects and potential immune mechanisms in IgAN and IBD. Methods: The microarray data of IgAN and IBD in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database were downloaded. The differential expression analysis was used to identify the shared differentially expressed genes (SDEGs). Besides, the shared transcription factors (TFs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) in IgAN and IBD were screened using humanTFDB, HMDD, ENCODE, JASPAR, and ChEA databases. Moreover, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was used to identify the shared immune-related genes (SIRGs) related to IgAN and IBD, and R software package org.hs.eg.db (Version3.1.0) were used to identify common immune pathways in IgAN and IBD. Results: In this study, 64 SDEGs and 28 SIRGs were identified, and the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) of 64 SDEGs was calculated and two genes (MVP, PDXK) with high area under the curve (AUC) in both IgAN and IBD were screened out as potential diagnostic biomarkers. We then screened 3 shared TFs (SRY, MEF2D and SREBF1) and 3 miRNAs (hsa-miR-146, hsa-miR-21 and hsa-miR-320), and further found that the immune pathways of 64SDEGs, 28SIRGs and 3miRNAs were mainly including B cell receptor signaling pathway, FcγR-mediated phagocytosis, IL-17 signaling pathway, toll-like receptor signaling pathway, TNF signaling pathway, TRP channels, T cell receptor signaling pathway, Th17 cell differentiation, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction. Conclusion: Our work revealed the differentiation of Th17 cells may mediate the abnormal humoral immunity in IgAN and IBD patients and identified novel gene candidates that could be used as biomarkers or potential therapeutic targets.

Ursolic acid inhibits Th17 cell differentiation via STAT3/RORγt pathway and suppresses Schwann cell-mediated Th17 cell migration by reducing CXCL9/10 expression.

Th17 cells represent important immune cells. Ursolic acid (UA) can regulate immune cell activities. This study was aimed to explore the effects of UA on Th17 cell differentiation and Schwann cell(SCs)-mediated migration and the potential mechanism. Naïve CD4+ T cells were isolated from rat peripheral blood, induced for Th17 cell differentiation, and treated with UA. The proportion of Th17 cells was detected by flow cytometry assay. SCs were co-cultured with Th17 cells. Th17 cell migration was detected by Transwell assay. The molecule expression was determined by Western blot and qRT-PCR. UA inhibited the Th17 cell differentiation and suppressed the STAT3/RORγt pathway. STAT3 overexpression up-regulated p-STAT3 and RORγt expression and promoted Th17 cell differentiation under the UA treatment. In LPS- and IFN-γ-stimulated-SCs, UA suppressed the expression of chemokines CXCL9/10, but had no significant effect of CCL20 expression. The expression CXCL9/10 receptor CXCR3 was higher in Th17 cells than that in Treg cells, while the expression CCL20 receptor CCR6 was lower in Th17 cells than that in Treg cells. UA, anti-CXCR3, and anti-CCR6 treatment inhibited SCs-mediated Th17 cell migration, and anti-CXCR3 exerted stronger inhibitory effect than Anti-CCR6. UA inhibited Th17 cell differentiation through STAT3/RORγt pathway and suppressed Th17 cell migration through down-regulating CXCL9/10 expression in SCs.

A systematic comparison of FOSL1, FOSL2 and BATF-mediated transcriptional regulation during early human Th17 differentiation.

Th17 cells are essential for protection against extracellular pathogens, but their aberrant activity can cause autoimmunity. Molecular mechanisms that dictate Th17 cell-differentiation have been extensively studied using mouse models. However, species-specific differences underscore the need to validate these findings in human. Here, we characterized the human-specific roles of three AP-1 transcription factors, FOSL1, FOSL2 and BATF, during early stages of Th17 differentiation. Our results demonstrate that FOSL1 and FOSL2 co-repress Th17 fate-specification, whereas BATF promotes the Th17 lineage. Strikingly, FOSL1 was found to play different roles in human and mouse. Genome-wide binding analysis indicated that FOSL1, FOSL2 and BATF share occupancy over regulatory regions of genes involved in Th17 lineage commitment. These AP-1 factors also share their protein interacting partners, which suggests mechanisms for their functional interplay. Our study further reveals that the genomic binding sites of FOSL1, FOSL2 and BATF harbour hundreds of autoimmune disease-linked SNPs. We show that many of these SNPs alter the ability of these transcription factors to bind DNA. Our findings thus provide critical insights into AP-1-mediated regulation of human Th17-fate and associated pathologies.

YY1 alleviates lupus nephritis-induced renal injury by reducing the Th17/Treg cell ratio via the IFN-γ/Fra2 axis.

Lupus nephritis (LN) is associated with extensive injury and nephron loss in the afflicted kidney. Evidence has revealed the involvement of dysregulated Yin Yang 1 (YY1), a reported inflammatory modulator, in LN-induced kidney injury, and our microarray profile identified downregulated YY1 expression. Therefore, this study explored the functional relevance and mechanism of YY1 in LN-induced kidney injury. LN was modeled in mice by intraperitoneal injection of pristane, and Jurkat cells (CD41 human T lymphocytes) were activated with TNF-α to mimic the inflammatory environment found in LN. The expression patterns of YY1 and bioinformatics predictions of the downstream factor IFN-γ were confirmed in renal tissues from the mice with LN using qRT-PCR and Western blot analyses. The contents of proinflammatory cytokines in mouse serum samples and cell supernatants were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Ectopic expression and depletion approaches were subsequently used in vitro and in vivo to examine the effects of the YY1/IFN-γ/Fra2/PARP-1/FOXO1 axis on TNF-α-induced inflammation and LN-induced kidney injury. The results showed downregulated expression of YY1 and FOXO1 in the kidney tissues of the mice with LN. Increased proinflammatory factor production was observed in the mice with LN and TNF-α-treated Jurkat cell supernatant, accompanied by increased cell apoptosis and a high ratio of Th17/Treg cells, and these effects were reversed by YY1 restoration. YY1 was further shown to inhibit IFN-γ expression and thereby downregulate Fra2 expression. Fra2 depletion then inhibited PARP-1 expression and promoted FOXO1 expression to suppress cell apoptosis and the release of inflammatory factors. Collectively, our findings revealed that YY1 may alleviate LN-induced renal injury via the IFN-γ/Fra2/PARP-1/FOXO1 axis.

The Purinergic Receptor P2X4 Promotes Th17 Activation and the Development of Arthritis.

Purinergic signaling plays a major role in T cell activation leading to IL-2 production and proliferation. However, it is unclear whether purinergic signaling contributes to the differentiation and activation of effector T cells. In this study, we found that the purinergic receptor P2X4 was associated with human Th17 cells but not with Th1 cells. Inhibition of P2X4 receptor with the specific antagonist 5-BDBD and small interfering RNA inhibited the development of Th17 cells and the production of IL-17 by effector Th17 cells stimulated via the CD3/CD28 pathway. Our results showed that P2X4 was required for the expression of retinoic acid-related orphan receptor C, which is the master regulator of Th17 cells. In contrast, inhibition of P2X4 receptor had no effect on Th1 cells and on the production of IFN-γ and it did not affect the expression of the transcription factor T-bet (T-box transcription factor). Furthermore, inhibition of P2X4 receptor reduced the production of IL-17 but not of IFN-γ by effector/memory CD4+ T cells isolated from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. In contrast to P2X4, inhibition of P2X7 and P2Y11 receptors had no effects on Th17 and Th1 cell activation. Finally, treatment with the P2X4 receptor antagonist 5-BDBD reduced the severity of collagen-induced arthritis in mice by inhibiting Th17 cell expansion and activation. Our findings provide novel insights into the role of purinergic signaling in T cell activation and identify a critical role for the purinergic receptor P2X4 in Th17 activation and in autoimmune arthritis.

Identification of Corosolic and Oleanolic Acids as Molecules Antagonizing the Human RORγT Nuclear Receptor Using the Calculated Fingerprints of the Molecular Similarity.

RORγT is a protein product of the RORC gene belonging to the nuclear receptor subfamily of retinoic-acid-receptor-related orphan receptors (RORs). RORγT is preferentially expressed in Th17 lymphocytes and drives their differentiation from naive CD4+ cells and is involved in the regulation of the expression of numerous Th17-specific cytokines, such as IL-17. Because Th17 cells are implicated in the pathology of autoimmune diseases (e.g., psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis), RORγT, whose activity is regulated by ligands, has been recognized as a drug target in potential therapies against these diseases. The identification of such ligands is time-consuming and usually requires the screening of chemical libraries. Herein, using a Tanimoto similarity search, we found corosolic acid and other pentacyclic tritepenes in the library we previously screened as compounds highly similar to the RORγT inverse agonist ursolic acid. Furthermore, using gene reporter assays and Th17 lymphocytes, we distinguished compounds that exert stronger biological effects (ursolic, corosolic, and oleanolic acid) from those that are ineffective (asiatic and maslinic acids), providing evidence that such combinatorial methodology (in silico and experimental) might help wet screenings to achieve more accurate results, eliminating false negatives.

Natural Herbal Remedy Wumei Decoction Ameliorates Intestinal Mucosal Inflammation by Inhibiting Th1/Th17 Cell Differentiation and Maintaining Microbial Homeostasis.

BACKGROUND: Evidence has shown that the traditional Chinese herbal medicine Wumei decoction (WMD) has a protective effect on ulcerative colitis. Here, we studied the anti-inflammatory effects and potential mechanisms of WMD on chronic colitis in mice. METHODS: A dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced chronic colitis model and CD45RBhighCD4+ T cell transfer model were established in mice. Body weight, Disease Activity Index, and colon length were assessed, and histopathology was confirmed by hematoxylin and eosin staining. Colon tissue samples were collected to detect the frequencies of various immune cells, expression of cytokines, and tight junction-related proteins using flow cytometry, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing was performed to distinguish differential microbiota of fecal samples. RESULTS: Severe chronic colitis was observed in mice after DSS exposure and in Rag1-/- mice reconstituted with CD45RBhighCD4+ T cells, as manifested by weight loss, hematochezia, and shortening and thickening of the colon, which were reversed by WMD treatment. WMD markedly suppressed intestinal mucosal CD4+ T cell differentiation and the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines (eg, tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-1ß, interferon γ, and IL-17A) by flow cytometry, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. Moreover, WMD promoted the expression of occludin, zonula occludens-1, and E-cadherin, thereby maintaining the epithelial barrier function. Additionally, 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing revealed that WMD regulated the dysbiosis of gut microbiota in CD45RBhighCD4+ T cell-reconstituted Rag1-/- mice, evidenced by an increase of Allobaculum and Bacteroides and a decrease of Ileibacterium. CONCLUSIONS: WMD ameliorates chronic colitis in mice induced by DSS or reconstituted with CD45RBhighCD4+ T cells through suppressing Th1/Th17 cell differentiation and the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, maintaining epithelial barrier function, and improving the dysbiosis.

TH17 cells and corticosteroid insensitivity in severe asthma.

Asthma is classically described as having either a type 2 (T2) eosinophilic phenotype or a non-T2 neutrophilic phenotype. T2 asthma usually responds to classical bronchodilation therapy and corticosteroid treatment. Non-T2 neutrophilic asthma is often more severe. Patients with non-T2 asthma or late-onset T2 asthma show poor response to the currently available anti-inflammatory therapies. These therapeutic failures result in increased morbidity and cost associated with asthma and pose a major health care problem. Recent evidence suggests that some non-T2 asthma is associated with elevated TH17 cell immune responses. TH17 cells producing Il-17A and IL-17F are involved in the neutrophilic inflammation and airway remodeling processes in severe asthma and have been suggested to contribute to the development of subsets of corticosteroid-insensitive asthma. This review explores the pathologic role of TH17 cells in corticosteroid insensitivity of severe asthma and potential targets to treat this endotype of asthma.

Membrane-bound IL-6R is upregulated on Th17 cells and inhibits Treg cell migration by regulating post-translational modification of VASP in autoimmune arthritis.

Autoimmune arthritis is characterized by impaired regulatory T (Treg) cell migration into inflamed joint tissue and by dysregulation of the balance between Treg cells and Th17 cells. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is known to contribute to this dysregulation, but the molecular mechanisms behind impaired Treg cell migration remain largely unknown. In this study, we assessed dynamic changes in membrane-bound IL-6 receptor (IL6R) expression levels on Th17 cells by flow cytometry during the development of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). In a next step, bioinformatics analysis based on proteomics was performed to evaluate potential pathways affected by altered IL-6R signaling in autoimmune arthritis. Our analysis shows that membrane-bound IL-6R is upregulated on Th17 cells and is inversely correlated with IL-6 serum levels in experimental autoimmune arthritis. Moreover, IL-6R expression is significantly increased on Th17 cells from untreated patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Interestingly, CD4+ T cells from CIA mice and RA patients show reduced phosphorylation of vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP). Bioinformatics analysis based on proteomics of CD4+ T cells with low or high phosphorylation levels of VASP revealed that integrin signaling and related pathways are significantly enriched in cells with low phosphorylation of VASP. Specific inhibition of p-VASP reduces the migratory function of Treg cells but has no influence on effector CD4+ T cells. Importantly, IL-6R blockade restores the phosphorylation level of VASP, thereby improving the migratory function of Treg cells from RA patients. Thus, our results establish a link between IL6R signaling and phosphorylation of VASP, which controls Treg cell migration in autoimmune arthritis.

MiR-301a-3p Advances IRAK1-Mediated Differentiation of Th17 Cells to Promote the Progression of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus via Targeting PELI1.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a common autoimmune disease with high incidence in females. The pathogenesis of SLE is complex, and healing SLE has become a serious challenge for clinical treatment. Aberrant expression of miR-301a-3p involves the progressions of multiple diseases, and some studies have indicated that increased miR-301a-3p could induce the inflammatory injury of some organs. However, the role and molecular mechanism of miR-301a-3p in SLE remain unclear. In this study, the miR-301a-3p levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of the patients with SLE and health subjects were measured with qRT-PCR. The ELISA assay was used to investigate the effect of miR-301a-3p on the levels of inflammatory factors in PBMCs, and flow cytometry assays were used to observe the effect of miR-301a-3p on the levels of CD4+ T cells and Th17 cells in PBMCs. Moreover, TargetScan, dual-luciferase reporter assay, and western blot were used to reveal the downstream targets and regulation mechanism of miR-301a-3p in SLE. The results showed that miR-301a-3p was significantly upregulated in PBMCs of the SLE patients, and increased miR-301a-3p could boost the expression of IL-6, IL-17, and INF-γ in PBMCs and promote the differentiation of Th17 cells. It was found that PELI1 was a target of miR-301a-3p, and PELI1 upregulation could effectively reverse the effect of miR-301a-3p on PBMCs. Besides, this study also found that miR-301a-3p could promote the expression of IRAK1 to involve the progression of SLE via targeting PELI1. In conclusion, this study suggests that increased miR-301a-3p serves as a pathogenic factor in SLE to promote IRAK1-mediated differentiation of Th17 cells via targeting PELI1.

A specific structure and high richness characterize intestinal microbiota of HIV-exposed seronegative individuals.

Intestinal microbiota facilitates food breakdown for energy metabolism and influences the immune response, maintaining mucosal homeostasis. Overall, HIV infection is associated with intestinal dysbiosis and immune activation, which has been related to seroconversion in HIV-exposed individuals. However, it is unclear whether microbiota dysbiosis is the cause or the effect of immune alterations and disease progression or if it could modulate the risk of acquiring the HIV infection. We characterize the intestinal microbiota and determine its association with immune regulation in HIV-exposed seronegative individuals (HESN), HIV-infected progressors (HIV+), and healthy control (HC) subjects. For this, feces and blood were collected. The microbiota composition of HESN showed a significantly higher alpha (p = 0.040) and beta diversity (p = 0.006) compared to HC, but no differences were found compared to HIV+. A lower Treg percentage was observed in HESN (1.77%) than HC (2.98%) and HIV+ (4.02%), with enrichment of the genus Butyrivibrio (p = 0.029) being characteristic of this profile. Moreover, we found that Megasphaera (p = 0.017) and Victivallis (p = 0.0029) also are enriched in the microbiota composition in HESN compared to HC and HIV+ subjects. Interestingly, an increase in Succinivibrio and Prevotella, and a reduction in Bacteroides genus, which is typical of HIV-infected individuals, were observed in both HESN and HIV+, compared to HC. Thus, HESNs have a microbiota profile, similar to that observed in HIV+, most likely because HESN are cohabiting with their HIV+ partners.