Enzymatic and Algebraic Methodology to Determine the Contents of Kunitz and Bowman-Birk Inhibitors and Their Contributions to Total Trypsin or Chymotrypsin Inhibition in Soybeans.

Soybeans are the number one source of plant proteins for food and feed, but the natural presence of protein protease inhibitors (PIs), namely, the Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI) and the Bowman-Birk inhibitor (BBI), exerts antinutritional effects. This communication describes a new methodology for simultaneously quantitating all parameters of PIs in soybeans. It consists of seven steps and featured enzymatically measuring trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitory activities, respectively, and subsequently determining the contents of reactive KTI and BBI and the contributions of each toward total PI mass and total trypsin or chymotrypsin inhibition by solving a proposed system of linear equations with two variables (C = dB + eK and T = xB + yK). This enzymatic and algebraic (EA) methodology was based on differential inhibitions of KTI and BBI toward trypsin and chymotrypsin and validated by applications to a series of mixtures of purified KTI and BBI, two KTI-null and two conventional soybeans, and by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The EA methodology allowed calculations of PI composition and the contributions of individual inhibitors toward total inhibition with ease. It was first found that although BBI constituted only about 30% of the total PI mass in conventional raw soybeans, it contributed about 80% toward total chymotrypsin inhibitor activity and about 45% toward trypsin inhibitor activity. Therefore, BBI caused more total protease inhibitions than those of KTI. Furthermore, the so-called KTI-null soybean mutants still contained measurable KTI content and thus should be named KTI-low soybeans.

Canonical or noncanonical? Structural plasticity of serine protease-binding loops in Kunitz-STI protease inhibitors.

The Kunitz-Soybean Trypsin Inhibitor (Kunitz-STI) family is a large family of proteins with most of its members being protease inhibitors. The versatility of the inhibitory profile and the structural plasticity of these proteins, make this family a promising scaffold for designing new multifunctional proteins. Historically, Kunitz-STI inhibitors have been classified as canonical serine protease inhibitors, but new inhibitors with novel inhibition mechanisms have been described in recent years. Different inhibition mechanisms could be the result of different evolutionary pathways. In the present work, we performed a structural analysis of all the crystallographic structures available for Kunitz-STI inhibitors to characterize serine protease-binding loop structural features and locations. Our study suggests a relationship between the conformation of serine protease-binding loops and the inhibition mechanism, their location in the ß-trefoil fold, and the plant source of the inhibitors. The classical canonical inhibitors of this family are restricted to plants from the Fabales order and bind their targets via the ß4-ß5 loop, whereas serine protease-binding loops in inhibitors from other plants lie mainly in the ß5-ß6 and ß9-ß10 loops. In addition, we found that the ß5-ß6 loop is used to inhibit two different families of serine proteases through a steric blockade inhibition mechanism. This work will help to change the general perception that all Kunitz-STI inhibitors are canonical inhibitors and proteins with protease-binding loops adopting noncanonical conformations are exceptions. Additionally, our results will help in the identification of protease-binding loops in uncharacterized or newly discovered inhibitors, and in the design of multifunctional proteins.

Kinetic and mechanistic study of ultrasonic inactivation of Kunitz (KTI) and Bowman-Birk (BBI) inhibitors in relation to process-relevant parameters.

In this study, quantitative monitoring of low-frequency (20 kHz) and high-frequency (355 kHz) ultrasound-induced inactivation of Kunitz (KTI) and Bowman-Birk inhibitor (BBI) using RP-HPLC was achieved, and its consistency with a traditional TI activity assay was verified. The effect of TI concentration, ultrasonic frequency, power density and pH on inactivation kinetics of KTI and BBI was explored. Results showed that the pseudo-first-order kinetic rate constants of KTI and BBI were decreased by over 60% when the initial TI concentration was increased from 100 mg/L to 1000 mg/L. Also, the amounts of inactivated KTI and BBI were increased by around 4-fold at the higher TI concentration of 1000 mg/L (20 kHz, 1.71 W/mL and pH 4). The colloidal environment and ultrasonic conditions influenced the secondary and tertiary structure and particle size of TIs in LF-induced inactivation. In comparison, the abovementioned conditions affected the oxidation of methionine and the conformational change of TIs in HF-induced inactivation.

Gastrobodies are engineered antibody mimetics resilient to pepsin and hydrochloric acid.

Protein-based targeting reagents, such as antibodies and non-antibody scaffold proteins, are rapidly inactivated in the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice denatures proteins and activates pepsin, concentrations of which reach 1 mg/mL in the mammalian stomach. Two stable scaffold proteins (nanobody and nanofitin), previously developed to be protease-resistant, were completely digested in less than 10 min at 100-fold lower concentration of pepsin than found in the stomach. Here we present gastrobodies, a protein scaffold derived from Kunitz soybean trypsin inhibitor (SBTI). SBTI is highly resistant to the challenges of the upper GI tract, including digestive proteases, pH 2 and bile acids. Computational prediction of SBTI's evolvability identified two nearby loops for randomization, to create a potential recognition surface which was experimentally validated by alanine scanning. We established display of SBTI on full-length pIII of M13 phage. Phage selection of gastrobody libraries against the glucosyltransferase domain of Clostridium difficile toxin B (GTD) identified hits with nanomolar affinity and enzyme inhibitory activity. Anti-GTD binders retained high stability to acid, digestive proteases and heat. Gastrobodies show resilience to exceptionally harsh conditions, which should provide a foundation for targeting and modulating function within the GI tract.

Targeted inactivation of soybean proteinase inhibitors using zinc.

In this study the potential targeted use of zinc to inactivate proteinase inhibitors (PI) has been investigated as an alternative to the widely applied heat treatment used industrially for inactivation of PI. Zinc was utilized for the reduction of disulfide bonds leading to the structural changes in proteins, thus affecting the decreased affinity between PI and proteinases. The protein disulfide bond reduction mechanism was studied using a newly developed micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography (MECC) with the glutathione redox reaction with dithiothreitol (DTT) as model system. This model proved efficient in monitoring the reduction of disulfide bonds in the Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI) and Bowman-Birk inhibitor (BBI). The use of zinc as a reductant resulted in a significant reduction of trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) of 72% for KTI and 85% for BBI, highlighting zinc as a promising potential agent to reduce the activity of PI as an alternative to heat treatment.

Preparation and Irreversible Inhibition Mechanism Insight into a Recombinant Kunitz Trypsin Inhibitor from Glycine max L. Seeds.

Soybean Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (SKTI), extracted from soybean (Glycine max L.) seeds, possesses insect resistance and anti-tumor properties. But its specific mechanisms of action are not yet known. This article reports an efficient method to produce recombinant SKTI (rSKTI) in Escherichia coli, reveals some biochemical properties of rSKTI, and discusses the inhibition mechanism of SKTI. The rSKTI was expressed as inclusion body in E. coli BL21 (DE3). After refolding, the active rSKTI was obtained and was further purified with anion-exchange chromatography (DEAE-FF) efficiently. There were similar biochemical properties between SKTI and rSKTI. The optimum pH and the optimum temperature were pH 8.0 and 35 °C, respectively, being stable during pH 7.0-11.0 and below 37 °C. The activity against trypsin was inhibited by Co2+, Mn2+, Fe3+, Al3+, and epoxy chloropropane. Inhibition kinetic assay of SKTI against trypsin as Lineweaver-Burk plots analysis both showed an unchanged Km and a decreased Vmax with N-benzoyl-L-arginine ethyl ester (BAEE) as substrate. Molecular modeling showed Arg63 of SKTI (active residue of SKTI) that interacts with four residues of trypsin, including three catalytic site (His57, Asp102, and Ser195) and one binding site (Asp189), forming five interactions. These provide reference for understanding the inhibition mechanism of such kind of Kunitz trypsin inhibitors.

Purification and characterization of Bowman-Birk and Kunitz isoinhibitors from the seeds of Rhynchosia sublobata (Schumach.) Meikle, a wild relative of pigeonpea.

Rhynchosia sublobata, a wild relative of pigeonpea, possesses defensive proteinase/protease inhibitors (PIs). Characterization of trypsin specific PIs (RsPI) separated from seeds by column chromatography using 2-D gel electrophoresis and Edman degradation method identified R. sublobata possessed both Bowman-Birk isoinhibitors (RsBBI) and Kunitz isoinhibitors (RsKI). A quick method was developed to separate RsBBI and RsKI from RsPI based on their differential solubility in TCA and acetate buffer. N-terminus sequencing of RsBBI and RsKI by MALDI-ISD ascertained the presence of Bowman Birk and Kunitz type isoinhibitors in R. sublobata. RsBBI (9216 Da) and RsKI (19,412 Da) exhibited self-association pattern as revealed by western blotting with anti-BBI antibody and MALDI-TOF peptide mass fingerprint analysis, respectively. RsBBI and RsKI varied significantly in their biochemical, biophysical and insecticidal properties. RsBBI inhibited the activity of trypsin (Ki = 128.5 ±â€¯4.5 nM) and chymotrypsin (Ki = 807.8 ±â€¯23.7 nM) while RsKI (Ki = 172.0 ±â€¯9.2 nM) inhibited the activity of trypsin alone, by non-competitive mode. The trypsin inhibitor (TI) and chymotrypsin inhibitor (CI) activities of RsBBI were stable up to 100 °C. But, RsBBI completely lost its TI and CI activities on reduction with 3 mM DTT. Conversely, RsKI lost its TI activity on heating at 100 °C and retained >60% of its TI activity in presence of 3 mM DTT. CD spectroscopic studies on RsBBI and RsKI showed their secondary structural elements in the following order: random coils > ß-sheets/ß-turns > α-helix. However, RsKI showed reversible denaturation midpoint (Tm) of 75 °C. Further, the significant inhibitory activity of RsBBI (IC50 = 24 ng) and RsKI (IC50 = 59 ng) against trypsin-like gut proteases of Achaea janata (AjGPs) and Helicoverpa armigera (HaGPs) suggest them as potential biomolecules in the management of A. janata and H. armigera, respectively.

Structural insights into the unique inhibitory mechanism of Kunitz type trypsin inhibitor from Cicer arietinum L.

Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitors bind to the active pocket of trypsin causing its inhibition. Plant Kunitz-type inhibitors are thought to be important in defense, especially against insect pests. From sequence analysis of various Kunitz-type inhibitors from plants, we identified CaTI2 from chickpea as a unique variant lacking the functionally important arginine residue corresponding to the soybean trypsin inhibitor (STI) and having a distinct and unique inhibitory loop organization. To further explore the implications of these sequence variations, we obtained the crystal structure of recombinant CaTI2 at 2.8Å resolution. It is evident from the structure that the variations in the inhibitory loop facilitates non-substrate like binding of CaTI2 to trypsin, while the canonical inhibitor STI binds to trypsin in substrate like manner. Our results establish the unique mechanism of trypsin inhibition by CaTI2, which warrant further research into its substrate spectrum. Abbreviations BApNA Nα-Benzoyl-L-arginine 4-nitroanilide BPT bovine pancreatic trypsin CaTI2 Cicer arietinum L trypsin inhibitor 2 DrTI Delonix regia Trypsin inhibitor EcTI Enterolobium contortisiliquum trypsin inhibitor ETI Erythrina caffra trypsin inhibitor KTI Kunitz type inhibitor STI soybean trypsin inhibitor TKI Tamarindus indica Kunitz inhibitor Communicated By Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Structural and functional analysis of miraculin-like protein from Vitis vinifera.

The so-called miraculin-like proteins (MLPs) are homologous to miraculin, a homodimeric protein with taste-modifying activity that converts sourness into sweetness. The identity between MLPs and miraculin generally ranges from 30% to 55%, and both MLPs and miraculin are categorized into the Kunitz-type soybean trypsin inhibitor (STI) family. MLP from grape (Vitis vinifera; vvMLP) exhibits significant homology to miraculin (61% identity), suggesting that vvMLP possesses miraculin-like properties. The results of size-exclusion chromatography and sensory analysis illustrated that vvMLP exists as a monomer in solution with no detectable taste-modifying activity. Crystal structure determination revealed that vvMLP exists as a ß-trefoil fold, similarly as other MLPs and Kunitz-type protein inhibitors. The conformation of the loops, including the so-called reactive loop in the STI family, was substantially different between vvMLP and STI. Recombinant vvMLP had inhibitory activity against trypsin (Ki = 13.7 µM), indicating that the protein can act as a moderate trypsin inhibitor.

Purification of lectin and Kunitz trypsin inhibitor from soya seeds.

The search for potent and selective therapeutic agents is progressing by the study of natural compounds in plants. Plant-derived macromolecules are considered emerging therapeutic agents and an alternative to synthetic and small molecule drugs. Where it has long been known that plants possess medicinal properties, the compounds responsible for their action are in many cases still unknown: often only whole crude plant extracts or fractionated extracts are tested for the ability to inhibit common pathogens. Here, we present a fast protein liquid chromatography method for the separation of crude plant proteins. Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI; 24.2 kDa) and lectin (31 kDa) were purified from Glycine max by liquid extraction followed by ion exchange column chromatography. The need for serial chromatographic separation steps has been eliminated by introducing more complex elution profiles hence reducing cost, time and improving recovery. The identity of KTI-A and lectin was confirmed by matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-ToF MS). Cell proliferation assays using B16F1 melanoma cells revealed that both KTI and the monomeric lectin retained some antiproliferative activity. This method could be useful for rapid and cost-effective purification of bioactive compounds from plant material.

Passivating Injured Endothelium with Kinexins in Thrombolytic Therapy.

Without conjunctive administration of an anticoagulant, endothelial injury-induced thrombosis is resistant to thrombolysis and prone to re-thrombosis. We hypothesized that co-delivery of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) with annexin V-containing anticoagulants that specifically target the injured endothelium may passivate the thrombogenic elements of the vascular injury site and enhance rtPA-induced thrombolysis. In this study, the effects of conjunctive administration of Kinexins (Kunitz inhibitor-annexin V fusion proteins) with rtPA on thrombolysis were determined in vitro and in vivo. Thromboelastometry showed that both TAP-A (tick anticoagulant peptide-annexin V fusion protein; an inhibitor of factor Xa [FXa] and prothrombinase) and A-6L15 (annexin V-6L15 fusion protein; an inhibitor of tissue factor/FVIIa) exerted concentration-dependent (10-100 nM) effects on clot formation, with TAP-A being several folds more potent than A-6L15 in whole blood. Combination of TAP-A or A-6L15 with rtPA (1 µg/mL) led to decrease in lysis index, suggesting conjunctive enhancement of thrombolysis by combined use of rtPA with TAP-A or A-6L15. In a rat cremaster muscle preparation subjected to photochemical injury, conjunctive administration of rtPA and TAP-A significantly restored tissue perfusion to 56%, which is approximately two fold of that by rtPA or TAP-A alone. Near-infrared fluorescence images demonstrated local retention of a fluorescent A-6L15-S288 at the injury site, suggesting a targeting effect of the fusion protein. Pharmacokinetic analysis showed that 123I-labelled TAP-A and A-6L15 had initial distribution half-lives (T1/2α) of approximately 6 minutes and elimination half-lives (T1/2ß) of approximately 2.3 hours. In conclusion, Kinexins were potentially useful adjunctive agents with rtPA thrombolytic therapy especially for thrombosis induced by endothelial injury.

Inactivation of Soybean Trypsin Inhibitor by Epigallocatechin Gallate: Stopped-Flow/Fluorescence, Thermodynamics, and Docking Studies.

Tea is one of the most widely daily consumed beverages all over the world, and it is usually consumed with milk and/or soy milk. However, very few researches have studied the interactions between tea polyphenols (TPs) and soy milk proteins as compared with milk proteins. Here, we reported that epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), a major component of TPs, can effectively inhibit the inhibitory activity of Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI, a major antinutrient in soy milk). The mechanism of inactivation of KTI by EGCG was investigated by stopped-flow/fluorescence, thermodynamics, and docking studies. The results indicated that EGCG binds KTI via both hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions with an association constant of 6.62 × 105 M-1 to form a 1:1 complex. Molecular docking showed the participation of amino acids includes three amino acid residues (Asn13, Pro72, and Trp117) near the reactive site of KTI, which may prevent KTI from contacting trypsin and hence inactivate KTI.

Protein Selectivity Controlled by Polymer Charge Density and Protein Yield: Carboxylated Polysaccharides versus Sulfated Polysaccharides.

The effect of polymer charge density on protein selectivity in the presence of carboxylated polysaccharides (CPS) and sulfated polysaccharides (SPS) was investigated for Kunitz trypsin inhibitor/Bowman-Birk protease inhibitor (KTI/BBI, KBM). To determine the conditions for coacervation or precipitation as a function of polymer charge densities, turbidimetric titrations and Tricine-SDS-PAGE were used. Polymer charge density as well as chain flexibility greatly influenced the strength of interactions and protein recovery. Although charge compensation must occur for CPS-KBM complexes, SPS-KBM systems did not require conservation of charge neutrality. Despite their similar isoelectric points, KTI bound preferentially to CPS and SPS due to its higher affinity compared to BBI. Complexation of KBM with the polysaccharide with the lowest charge density, arabic gum, expectedly cannot realize the purification of BBI under conditions where binding to more highly charged polysaccharides occurs. This work will be beneficial to selective purification of target proteins through control of protein-polysaccharide complexation.

Structures of a bi-functional Kunitz-type STI family inhibitor of serine and aspartic proteases: Could the aspartic protease inhibition have evolved from a canonical serine protease-binding loop?

Bi-functional inhibitors from the Kunitz-type soybean trypsin inhibitor (STI) family are glycosylated proteins able to inhibit serine and aspartic proteases. Here we report six crystal structures of the wild-type and a non-glycosylated mutant of the bifunctional inhibitor E3Ad obtained at different pH values and space groups. The crystal structures show that E3Ad adopts the typical ß-trefoil fold of the STI family exhibiting some conformational changes due to pH variations and crystal packing. Despite the high sequence identity with a recently reported potato cathepsin D inhibitor (PDI), three-dimensional structures obtained in this work show a significant conformational change in the protease-binding loop proposed for aspartic protease inhibition. The E3Ad binding loop for serine protease inhibition is also proposed, based on structural similarity with a novel non-canonical conformation described for the double-headed inhibitor API-A from the Kunitz-type STI family. In addition, structural and sequence analyses suggest that bifunctional inhibitors of serine and aspartic proteases from the Kunitz-type STI family are more similar to double-headed inhibitor API-A than other inhibitors with a canonical protease-binding loop.

Two variants of the major serine protease inhibitor from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, expressed in Pichia pastoris.

The major protease inhibitor from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus (ShPI-1) is a non-specific inhibitor that binds trypsin and other trypsin-like enzymes, as well as chymotrypsin, and human neutrophil elastase. We performed site-directed mutagenesis of ShPI-1 to produce two variants (rShPI-1/K13L and rShPI/Y15S) that were expressed in Pichia pastoris, purified, and characterized. After a single purification step, 65 mg and 15 mg of protein per liter of culture supernatant were obtained for rShPI-1/K13L and rShPI/Y15S, respectively. Functional studies demonstrated a 100-fold decreased trypsin inhibitory activity as result of the K13L substitution at the reactive (P1) site. This protein variant has a novel tight-binding inhibitor activity of pancreatic elastase and increased activity toward neutrophil elastase in comparison to rShPI-1A. In contrast, the substitution Y15S at P2' site did not affect the Ki value against trypsin, but did reduce activity 10-fold against chymotrypsin and neutrophil elastase. Our results provide two new ShPI-1 variants with modified inhibitory activities, one of them with increased biomedical potential. This study also offers new insight into the functional impact of the P1 and P2' sites on ShPI-1 specificity.

Supramolecular Au(I)-Cu(I) Complexes as New Luminescent Labels for Covalent Bioconjugation.

Two new supramolecular organometallic complexes, namely, [Au6Cu2(C2C6H4CHO)6(PPh2C6H4PPh2)3](PF6)2 and [Au6Cu2(C2C6H4NCS)6(PPh2C6H4PPh2)3](PF6)2, with highly reactive aldehyde and isothiocyanate groups have been synthesized and characterized using X-ray crystallography, ESI mass spectrometry, and NMR spectroscopy. The compounds obtained demonstrated bright emission in solution with the excited-state lifetime in microsecond domain both under single- and two-photon excitation. The luminescent complexes were found to be suitable for bioconjugation in aqueous media. In particular, they are able to form the covalent conjugates with proteins of different molecular size (soybean trypsin inhibitor, human serum albumin, rabbit anti-HSA antibodies). The conjugates demonstrated a high level of the phosphorescent emission from the covalently bound label, excellent solubility, and high stability in physiological media. The highest quantum yield, storage stability, and luminance were detected for bioconjugates formed by covalent attachment of the aldehyde-bearing supramolecular Au(I)-Cu(I) complex. The measured biological activity of one of the labeled model proteins clearly showed that introduced label did not prevent the biorecognition and specific protein-protein complex formation that was extremely important for the application of the conjugates in biomolecular detection and imaging.

Identification of a new soybean kunitz trypsin inhibitor mutation and its effect on bowman-birk protease inhibitor content in soybean seed.

Soybean seed contains antinutritional compounds that inactivate digestive proteases, principally corresponding to two families: Kunitz trypsin inhibitors (KTi) and Bowman-Birk inhibitors (BBI). High levels of raw soybean/soybean meal in feed mixtures can cause poor weight gain and pancreatic abnormalities via inactivation of trypsin/chymotrypsin enzymes. Soybean protein meal is routinely heat-treated to inactivate inhibitors, a practice that is energy-intensive and costly and can degrade certain essential amino acids. In this work, we screened seed from 520 soybean accessions, using a combination of sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immunoblots with anti-Kunitz trypsin inhibitor antibodies. A soybean germplasm accession was identified with a mutation affecting an isoform annotated as nonfunctional (KTi1), which was determined to be synergistic with a previously identified mutation (KTi3-). We observed significant proteome rebalancing in all KTi mutant lines, resulting in dramatically increased BBI protein levels.

A conserved tryptophan (W91) at the barrel-lid junction modulates the packing and stability of Kunitz (STI) family of inhibitors.

ß-trefoil fold, consisting of a six stranded ß-barrel capped at one end by a lid comprising of another six ß-strands, is one of the most important folds among proteins. Important classes of proteins like Interleukins (ILs), Fibroblast Growth Factors (FGFs), Kunitz (STI) family of inhibitors etc. belong to this fold. Their core is packed by hydrophobic residues contributed by the 6 stranded ß-barrel and three ß-hairpins that make essential contacts with each other and keep the protein in 'topologically minimal frustrated state'. A complete database analysis of the core residues of the ß-trefoil fold proteins presented here identified a conserved tryptophan (W91) residue in the Kunitz (STI) family of inhibitors that projects from the lid and interacts with the bottom layer residues of the barrel. This kind of interactions is unique in Kunitz (STI) family because no other families of ß-trefoil fold have such a shear sized residue at the barrel lid junction; suggesting its possible importance in packing and stability. We took WCI as a representative of this family and prepared four cavity creating mutants W91F-WCI, W91M-WCI, W91I-WCI & W91A-WCI. CD experiments show that the secondary structure of the mutants remains indistinguishable with the wild type. Crystal structures of the mutants W91F-WCI, W91M-WCI & W91A-WCI also show the same feature. However, slight readjustments of the side chains around the site of mutation have been observed so as to minimize the cavity created due to mutation. Comparative stability of these mutants, estimated using heat denaturation CD spectroscopy, indicates that stability of the mutants inversely correlates with the size of the cavity inside the core. Interestingly, although we mutated at the core, mutants show varying susceptibility against tryptic digestion that grossly follow their instability determined by CD. Our findings suggest that the W91 residue plays an important role in determining the stability and packing of the core of WCI.

Soybean whey protein/chitosan complex behavior and selective recovery of kunitz trypsin inhibitor.

Proteins in soybean whey were separated by Tricine-SDS-PAGE and identified by MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS. In addition to ß-amylase, soybean agglutinin (SBA), and Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI), a 12 kDa band was found to have an amino acid sequence similar to that of Bowman-Birk protease inhibitor (BBI) and showed both trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor activities. The complex behavior of soybean whey proteins (SWP) with chitosan (Ch) as a function of pH and protein to polysaccharide ratio (RSWP/Ch) was studied by turbidimetric titration and SDS-PAGE. During pH titration, the ratio of zeta potentials (absolute values) for proteins to chitosan (|ZSWP|/ZCh) at the initial point of phase separation (pHφ1) was equal to the reciprocal of their mass ratio (SWP/Ch), revealing that the electric neutrality conditions were fulfilled. The maximum protein recovery (32%) was obtained at RSWP/Ch = 4:1 and pH 6.3, whereas at RSWP/Ch = 20:1 and pH 5.5, chitosan consumption was the lowest (0.196 g Ch/g recovered proteins). In the protein-chitosan complex, KTI and the 12 kDa protein were higher in content than SBA and ß-amylase. However, if soybean whey was precentrifuged to remove aggregated proteins and interacted with chitosan at the conditions of SWP/Ch = 100:1, pH 4.8, and low ionic strength, KTI was found to be selectively complexed. After removal of chitosan at pH 10, a high-purity KTI (90% by SEC-HPLC) could be obtained.

The integral and extrinsic bioactive proteins in the aqueous extracted soybean oil bodies.

Soybean oil bodies (OBs), naturally pre-emulsified soybean oil, have been examined by many researchers owing to their great potential utilizations in food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and other applications requiring stable oil-in-water emulsions. This study was the first time to confirm that lectin, Gly m Bd 28K (Bd 28K, one soybean allergenic protein), Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI), and Bowman-Birk inhibitor (BBI) were not contained in the extracted soybean OBs even by neutral pH aqueous extraction. It was clarified that the well-known Gly m Bd 30K (Bd 30K), another soybean allergenic protein, was strongly bound to soybean OBs through a disulfide bond with 24 kDa oleosin. One steroleosin isoform (41 kDa) and two caleosin isoforms (27 kDa, 29 kDa), the integral bioactive proteins, were confirmed for the first time in soybean OBs, and a considerable amount of calcium, necessary for the biological activities of caleosin, was strongly bound to OBs. Unexpectedly, it was found that 24 kDa and 18 kDa oleosins could be hydrolyzed by an unknown soybean endoprotease in the extracted soybean OBs, which might give some hints for improving the enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction processing of soybean free oil.