Effect of no-flow period on the vasopressor effect of initial epinephrine administration in cardiac arrest.

OBJECTIVES: Whether a longer no-flow (NF) interval affects the magnitude of response to epinephrine in the resuscitation has not been well studied. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of NF interval on the vasopressor effect of initial epinephrine administration in a porcine model. METHODS: We enrolled 20 pigs from two randomized porcine experimental studies using a ventricular fibrillation (VF) cardiac arrest model. The first experiment subjects were resuscitated after 4 min of NF (Short NF group), followed by three cycles (6 min) of chest compression using a mechanical cardiopulmonary resuscitation device before epinephrine administration. Second experiment subjects received 6 min of NF (Long NF group), two cycles (4 min) of chest compressions, and administration of epinephrine. Defibrillation for VF was delivered 8 and 10 min after VF induction in the Short NF and Long NF groups, respectively. The mean arterial pressure (MAP) and cerebral perfusion pressure (CePP) in the 2-min resuscitation period after epinephrine administration were compared between the study groups using the Wilcoxon rank-sum test. The mean differences in the parameters between phases were also compared. RESULTS: Seven pigs in the Short NF group and 13 pigs in the Long NF group were included in the analysis. All 2-min resuscitation phases from 6 to 16 min after VF induction were compared between the study groups. The Short NF group showed higher MAP and CePP in all phases (p < 0.01). Change of mean MAP after the epinephrine administration was significantly different between the study groups: mean difference (95% confidence interval) of 16.6 (15.8-17.4) mmHg in the Short NF group and 4.2 (3.9-4.5) mmHg in the Long NF group. CONCLUSION: In the porcine VF cardiac arrest model, 6 min of NF before resuscitation may affect the vasopressor effect of the initial epinephrine administered compared to 4 min of NF. A short NF may play a role in maximizing the effect of epinephrine in advanced cardiovascular life support.

Electrophysiological Characteristics and Ablation Outcomes in Patients With Catecholaminergic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia.

BACKGROUND: Catheter ablation of premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) that trigger polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (PVT) or ventricular fibrillation has been reported as a novel therapy to reduce the syncope events in patients with catecholaminergic PVT, whereas the long-term ablation outcome and its value in improving exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias remain unclear. METHODS AND RESULTS: Fourteen consecutive selected patients with catecholaminergic PVT (mean±SD age, 16±6 years; 43% male patients) treated with maximum ß-blockers with no possibility of adding flecainide were prospectively enrolled for catheter ablation. The primary end point was syncope recurrence, and the secondary end point was the reduction of the ventricular arrhythmia score during exercise testing. Twenty-six PVT/ventricular fibrillation-triggering PVCs were identified for ablation. The trigger beats arose from the left ventricle in 50% of the cases and from both ventricles in 36% of the cases. Purkinje potentials were observed at 27% of the targets. After a mean follow-up of 49 months after ablation, 8 (57%) patients were free from syncope recurrence. Ablation of trigger beat significantly reduced the syncope frequency (mean±SD, 4.3±1.6 to 0.5±0.8 events per year; P<0.001) and improved the ventricular arrhythmia scores at the 3-month (5 [range, 3-6] to 1.5 [range, 0-5]; P=0.002) and 12-month (5 [range, 3-6] to 2 [range, 0-5]; P=0.014) follow-ups. The induction of nontriggering PVCs postablation was closely associated with syncope recurrence (hazard ratio, 6.8 [95% CI, 1.3-35.5]; P=0.026). CONCLUSIONS: Catheter ablation of PVT/ventricular fibrillation-triggering PVCs in patients with catecholaminergic PVT who cannot receive flecainide treatment seems to be a safe and feasible adjunctive treatment that may reduce the syncope burden and improve exercise-related ventricular arrhythmias. Induction of nontriggering PVCs after ablation is associated with a higher risk of syncope recurrence.

New drug discovery of cardiac anti-arrhythmic drugs: insights in animal models.

Cardiac rhythm regulated by micro-macroscopic structures of heart. Pacemaker abnormalities or disruptions in electrical conduction, lead to arrhythmic disorders may be benign, typical, threatening, ultimately fatal, occurs in clinical practice, patients on digitalis, anaesthesia or acute myocardial infarction. Both traditional and genetic animal models are: In-vitro: Isolated ventricular Myocytes, Guinea pig papillary muscles, Patch-Clamp Experiments, Porcine Atrial Myocytes, Guinea pig ventricular myocytes, Guinea pig papillary muscle: action potential and refractory period, Langendorff technique, Arrhythmia by acetylcholine or potassium. Acquired arrhythmia disorders: Transverse Aortic Constriction, Myocardial Ischemia, Complete Heart Block and AV Node Ablation, Chronic Tachypacing, Inflammation, Metabolic and Drug-Induced Arrhythmia. In-Vivo: Chemically induced arrhythmia: Aconitine antagonism, Digoxin-induced arrhythmia, Strophanthin/ouabain-induced arrhythmia, Adrenaline-induced arrhythmia, and Calcium-induced arrhythmia. Electrically induced arrhythmia: Ventricular fibrillation electrical threshold, Arrhythmia through programmed electrical stimulation, sudden coronary death in dogs, Exercise ventricular fibrillation. Genetic Arrhythmia: Channelopathies, Calcium Release Deficiency Syndrome, Long QT Syndrome, Short QT Syndrome, Brugada Syndrome. Genetic with Structural Heart Disease: Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy/Dysplasia, Dilated Cardiomyopathy, Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy, Atrial Fibrillation, Sick Sinus Syndrome, Atrioventricular Block, Preexcitation Syndrome. Arrhythmia in Pluripotent Stem Cell Cardiomyocytes. Conclusion: Both traditional and genetic, experimental models of cardiac arrhythmias' characteristics and significance help in development of new antiarrhythmic drugs.

Editorial for the IJMS Special Issue "Progress in Understanding of Cardiac Arrhythmia Mechanisms and Antiarrhythmic Targets".

Cardiac rhythm disorders, in particular life-threatening ventricular fibrillation and stroke-provoking fibrillation of the atria, are a permanent focus of both clinical and experimental cardiologists [...].

Liposome-Encapsulated Hemoglobin Vesicle Improves Persistent Anti-arrhythmogenesis through Improving Myocardial Electrical Remodeling and Modulating Cardiac Autonomic Activity in a Hemorrhagic Shock-Induced Rat Heart Model.

OBJECTIVE: Shock heart syndrome (SHS) is associated with lethal arrhythmias (ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation, VT/VF). We investigated whether liposome-encapsulated human hemoglobin vesicles (HbVs) has comparable persistent efficacy to washed red blood cells (wRBCs) for improving arrhythmogenesis in the subacute to chronic phase of SHS. METHODS: Optical mapping analysis (OMP), electrophysiological study (EPS), and pathological examinations were performed on blood samples from Sprague-Dawley rats following induction of hemorrhagic shock. After hemorrhagic shock, the rats were immediately resuscitated by transfusing 5% albumin (ALB), HbV, or wRBCs. All rats survived for 1 week. OMP and EPS were performed on Langendorff-perfused hearts. Spontaneous arrhythmias and heart rate variability (HRV) were evaluated using awake 24-h telemetry, cardiac function by echocardiography, and pathological examination of Connexin43. RESULTS: OMP showed significantly impaired action potential duration dispersion (APDd) in the left ventricle (LV) in the ALB group whereas APDd was substantially preserved in the HbV and wRBCs groups. Sustained VT/VF was easily provoked by EPS in the ALB group. No VT/VF was induced in the HbV and wRBCs groups. HRV, spontaneous arrhythmias, and cardiac function were preserved in the HbV and wRBCs groups. Pathology showed myocardial cell damage and Connexin43 degradation in the ALB group, all of which were attenuated in the HbV and wRBCs groups. CONCLUSION: LV remodeling after hemorrhagic shock caused VT/VF in the presence of impaired APDd. Similar to wRBCs, HbV persistently prevented VT/VF by inhibiting persistent electrical remodeling, preserving myocardial structures, and ameliorating arrhythmogenic modifying factors in the subacute to chronic phase of hemorrhagic shock-induced SHS.

Comparison of the effects of lidocaine and amiodarone for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients with shockable rhythms: a retrospective observational study from a multicenter registry.

BACKGROUND: Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) with shockable rhythms, including ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia, is associated with better prognosis and neurological outcome than OHCA due to other rhythms. Antiarrhythmic drugs, including lidocaine and amiodarone, are often used for defibrillation. This study aimed to compare the effects of lidocaine and amiodarone on the prognosis and neurological outcome of patients with OHCA due to shockable rhythms in a real-world setting. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective observational study using a multicenter OHCA registry of 91 participating hospitals in Japan. We included adult patients with shockable rhythms, such as ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia, who were administered either lidocaine or amiodarone. The primary outcome was 30-day survival, and the secondary outcome was a good neurological outcome at 30 days. We compared the effects of lidocaine and amiodarone for patients with OHCA due to shockable rhythms for these outcomes using logistic regression analysis after propensity score matching (PSM). RESULTS: Of the 51,199 patients registered in the OHCA registry, 1970 patients were analyzed. In total, 105 patients (5.3%) were administered lidocaine, and 1865 (94.7%) were administered amiodarone. After performing PSM with amiodarone used as the reference, the odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals of lidocaine use for 30-day survival and 30-day good neurological outcome were 1.44 (0.58-3.61) and 1.77 (0.59-5.29), respectively. CONCLUSION: The use of lidocaine and amiodarone for patients with OHCA due to shockable rhythms within a real-world setting showed no significant differences in short-term mortality or neurological outcome. There is no evidence that either amiodarone or lidocaine is superior in treatment; thus, either or both drugs could be administered.

Aging-associated susceptibility to stress-induced ventricular arrhythmogenesis is attenuated by tetrodotoxin.

Aging is associated with increased prevalence of life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias, but mechanisms underlying higher susceptibility to arrhythmogenesis and means to prevent such arrhythmias under stress are not fully defined. We aimed to define differences in aging-associated susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation (VF) induction between young and aged hearts. VF induction was attempted in isolated perfused hearts of young (6-month) and aged (24-month-old) male Fischer-344 rats by rapid pacing before and following isoproterenol (1 µM) or global ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury with or without pretreatment with low-dose tetrodotoxin, a late sodium current blocker. At baseline, VF could not be induced; however, the susceptibility to inducible VF after isoproterenol and spontaneous VF following I/R was 6-fold and 3-fold higher, respectively, in old hearts (P < 0.05). Old animals had longer epicardial monophasic action potential at 90% repolarization (APD90; P < 0.05) and displayed a loss of isoproterenol-induced shortening of APD90 present in the young. In isolated ventricular cardiomyocytes from older but not younger animals, 4-aminopyridine prolonged APD and induced early afterdepolarizations (EADs) and triggered activity with isoproterenol. Low-dose tetrodotoxin (0.5 µM) significantly shortened APD without altering action potential upstroke and prevented 4-aminopyridine-mediated APD prolongation, EADs, and triggered activity. Tetrodotoxin pretreatment prevented VF induction by pacing in isoproterenol-challenged hearts. Vulnerability to VF following I/R or catecholamine challenge is significantly increased in old hearts that display reduced repolarization reserve and increased propensity to EADs, triggered activity, and ventricular arrhythmogenesis that can be suppressed by low-dose tetrodotoxin, suggesting a role of slow sodium current in promoting arrhythmogenesis with aging.

Cardiac electrical storm induced by anesthesia was successfully managed during surgery: a case report.

BACKGROUND: At present, the overall number of cardiac storms is small, there is a paucity of published literature describing cardiac storms in patients undergoing superficial surgery under general anesthesia (GA). In recent years, cardiac storm has attracted much clinical attention due to its high mortality, difficult management and poor prognosis. CASE DESCRIPTION: This paper reports a 57-year-old male with cardiac electrical storm. He presented with clinical symptoms such as exudation, bad breath, restricted mouth opening, and mucous leukoplakia on local skin, without history of cardiac disease and cardiovascular disease, undergoing superficial face surgery under GA. At 2 hours after anesthesia induction, several premature ventricular beats were detected on monitoring. Hematocrit and plasma potassium were found to be markedly decreased. The patient subsequently experienced a cardiac electrical storm, with repeated episodes of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (VT) not degenerating to ventricular fibrillation (VF). Combining these clinical symptoms and examinations, we made the diagnosis of cardiac electrical storm. At the first occurrence of bradycardia, we administered atropine, which resolved bradycardia. However, this was followed 10 minutes later by VT, which we treated with atropine and epinephrine. Epinephrine and amiodarone were given in the second episode; epinephrine and lidocaine were used to treat the third episode. Finally, he was treated successfully with pharmacologic therapy and chest compressions. No abnormal electrocardiograph events occurred in the patient after surgery. CONCLUSIONS: This case highlights the possibility of anesthesia-induced autotransfusion and cardiac electrical storm occurring in patients without known cardiac disease. For this kind of case needs as soon as possible electric defibrillation and electric cardioversion, timely intravenous application effective anti-arrhythmic drugs and other treatment measures. We expect that this case report adds to the existing literature on this subject.

Ten-year-old boy with congenital long QT syndrome type 2 (LQTS2) and life-threatening electrical storm: a case report of successful treatment with mexiletine.

We present a case of a boy with long QT syndrome type 2, who was admitted after an out of hospital cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation. Subsequently, all treatments - intravenous magnesium, optimisation of electrolytes, an isoproterenol infusion - failed to terminate his electrical storm. As a last option before left-sided cardiac sympathetic denervation, mexiletine was started and the electrical storm resolved completely.

Effect of Time to Treatment With Antiarrhythmic Drugs on Return of Spontaneous Circulation in Shock-Refractory Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest.

Background The effects of amiodarone and lidocaine on the return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) in relation to time to treatment in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest is not known. We conducted a post hoc analysis of the ROC ALPS (Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium Amiodarone, Lidocaine, Placebo) randomized controlled trial examining the association of time to treatment (drug or placebo) with ROSC at hospital arrival. Methods and Results In the trial, adults with nontraumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with initial refractory ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia after at least 1 defibrillation were randomly assigned to receive amiodarone, lidocaine, or placebo. We used logistic regression to examine the association of time to treatment (911 call to study drug administration) with ROSC. An interaction term between treatment and time to treatment was included to determine the potential effect of time on treatment effects. Overall, 1112 (36.7%) patients had ROSC at hospital arrival (350 in the amiodarone arm, 396 in the lidocaine arm, and 366 in the placebo arm). The proportion of patients who had ROSC decreased as time to drug administration increased, in patients treated with amiodarone (odds ratio, 0.92; 95% CI, 0.90-0.94 per minute increase), lidocaine (odds ratio, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.93-0.96), and placebo (odds ratio, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.93-0.96). With shorter times to drug administration, the proportion with ROSC was higher in amiodarone versus placebo recipients. Conclusions The probability of ROSC decreased as time to drug administration increased. The effect of amiodarone but not lidocaine to restore ROSC declined with longer times to drug administration, potentially attributable to its adverse hemodynamic effects.

Effects of azumolene on arrhythmia substrate in a model of recurrent long-duration ventricular fibrillation.

BACKGROUND: Proarrhythmic risk of conventional anti-arrhythmic agents is linked to unintended modulation of membrane voltage dynamics. We have demonstrated that the anti-fibrillatory effect of azumolene is mediated via stabilization of the hyperphosphorylated ryanodine receptor (RyR2), leading to attenuation of diastolic calcium leak. However, the concomitant effects on membrane voltage dynamics have not been evaluated yet. METHODS: After baseline optical mapping, Langendorff-perfused rabbit hearts treated with azumolene, or vehicle, were subjected to global ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) followed by two episodes of long-duration ventricular fibrillation (LDVF). Simultaneous dual epicardial calcium transient (CaT) and voltage dynamics were studied optically. RESULTS: Pre-treatment with azumolene was associated with higher CaT amplitude alternans ratios (0.94 ± 0.02 vs. 0.78 ± 0.03 in control hearts, at 6 Hz; p = 0.005; and action potential amplitude alternans ratio (0.95 ± 0.02 vs. 0.78 ± 0.04 at 6.0 Hz; p = 0.02), and reduction of action potential duration (APD80) dispersion (9.0 ± 4.8 msec vs. 19.3 ± 6.6 msec at 6.0 Hz p = 0.02) and optical action potential upstroke rise time (26.3 ± 2.6 msec in control vs. 13.8 ± 0.6 msec at 6.0 Hz, p = 0.02) after LDVF. No change in action potential duration (APD) was noted with azumolene treatment. CONCLUSION: In a model of ischemic recurrent LDVF, treatment with azumolene led to reduction of cardiac alternans, i.e., calcium and voltage alternans. Unlike conventional anti-arrhythmic agents, reduction of action potential upstroke rise time and preservation of action potential duration following azumolene treatment may reduce the proarrhythmia risk.

Prognostic value of beta-blocker doses in patients with ventricular tachyarrhythmias.

The study investigates the prognostic significance of beta-blocker (BB) dose in patients with ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Limited data regarding the prognostic impact of BB dose in ventricular tachyarrhythmias is available. A large retrospective registry was used including consecutive patients on BB treatment with episodes of ventricular tachycardia (VT) or fibrillation (VF) from 2002 to 2015. Discharge BB doses were grouped as > 0-12.5%, > 12.5-25%, > 25-50%, and > 50% according to doses used in randomized trials. The primary endpoint was all-cause mortality at three years. Secondary endpoints comprised of a composite arrhythmic endpoint (i.e., recurrences of ventricular tachyarrhythmias and appropriate ICD therapies) and cardiac rehospitalization. Kaplan-Meier survival curves and multivariable Cox regression analyses were applied for statistics. A total of 1313 patients with BB were included; most patients were discharged with > 25-50% of BB target dose (59%). At three years, > 12.5-25% of BB target dose was associated with improved long-term mortality as compared to the > 0-12.5% group (HR = 0.489; 95% CI 0.297-0.806; p = 0.005), whereas higher BB doses did not improve survival (> 25-50%: HR = 0.849; p = 0.434; > 50%: HR = 0.735; p = 0.285). In contrast, the composite endpoint and risk of rehospitalization were not affected by BB target dose. In conclusion, > 12.5-25% of BB target dose is associated with best long-term survival among patients with ventricular tachyarrhythmias. In contrast, risk of the composite arrhythmic endpoint and risk of cardiac rehospitalization were not affected by BB dose.

Current and investigational therapies for the treatment of refractory ventricular fibrillation.

PURPOSE: Esmolol, dual sequential defibrillation, vector change defibrillation, and left stellate ganglion block are presented and reviewed for the treatment of refractory ventricular fibrillation. SUMMARY: Although no formal definition has been established for refractory ventricular fibrillation, the literature describes it as a pulseless ventricular arrhythmia that persists despite 3 standard defibrillation attempts, administration of amiodarone 300 mg intravenously, and provision of three 1-mg intravenous doses of epinephrine. Evolving literature surrounding resuscitation in this particular subset of cardiac arrest challenges the efficacy of traditional therapies, such as epinephrine, and suggests that other treatment modalities may improve outcomes. Case reports, case series, and small retrospective studies have pointed to benefit when utilizing a variety of therapies, namely, esmolol, dual sequential defibrillation, vector change defibrillation, or left stellate ganglion block, in patients with refractory ventricular fibrillation arrest. CONCLUSION: A mounting, although limited, body of evidence suggests that esmolol, dual sequential defibrillation, vector change defibrillation, or left stellate ganglion block may be effective at terminating refractory ventricular fibrillation and improving patient outcomes. Further evidence is required before these therapies can be adopted as standard practice; however, as key members of the code response team, it is imperative for pharmacists to be familiar with the supporting evidence, safety considerations, and logistical challenges of utilizing these treatments during arrest.

Impact of Ghrelin on Ventricular Arrhythmia and Related Mechanism After Myocardial Infarction.

INTRODUCTION: Ghrelin is an endogenous peptide with potential protective effects on ischemic heart. METHODS: Synthetic ghrelin was administered (100 µg·kg-1 subcutaneous injection, twice daily) for 4 weeks in a rat model of myocardial infarction (MI) with coronary artery occlusion. At the 5th week, electrocardiogram, monophasic action potentials and autonomic nerve function were evaluated. Cardiac tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) was determined by immunofluorescence staining. RESULTS: MI significantly increased sympathetic nerve activity (SNA) and ventricular arrhythmias, and prolonged APD dispersion and APD alternans (p < 0.01). Ghrelin treatment significantly increased ventricular fibrillation threshold (VFT), shortened APD dispersion and APD alternans, inhibited SNA and promoted vagus nerve activities (p < 0.01). Ghrelin also markedly reversed abnormal expression of TH in the peri-infarcted area of the heart (p < 0.01). DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: Ghrelin provides a sustained electrophysiological protection by the increase of VFT and improvement of APD dispersion and APD alternans. The mechanism may be related to the regulation of autonomic nerve and sympathetic nerve remodeling. Thus, ghrelin represents a novel drug to prevent ventricular arrhythmia in ischemic heart disease.

Mechanism of the effects of sodium channel blockade on the arrhythmogenic substrate of Brugada syndrome.

BACKGROUND: The mechanisms by which sodium channel blockade and high-rate pacing modify electrogram (EGM) substrates of Brugada syndrome (BrS) have not been elucidated. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of ajmaline and high pacing rate on the BrS substrates. METHODS: Thirty-two patients with BrS (mean age 40 ± 12 years) and frequent ventricular fibrillation episodes underwent right ventricular outflow tract substrate electroanatomical and electrocardiographic imaging (ECGI) mapping before and after ajmaline administration and during high-rate atrial pacing. In 4 patients, epicardial mapping was performed using open thoracotomy with targeted biopsies. RESULTS: Ajmaline increased the activation time delay in the substrate (33%; P = .002), ST-segment elevation in the right precordial leads (74%; P < .0001), and the area of delayed activation (170%; P < .0001), coinciding with the increased substrate size (75%; P < .0001). High atrial pacing rate increased the abnormal EGM duration at the right ventricular outflow tract areas from 112 ± 48 to 143 ± 66 ms (P = .003) and produced intermittent conduction block and/or excitation failure at the substrate sites, especially after ajmaline administration. Biopsies from the 4 patients with thoracotomy showed epicardial fibrosis where EGMs were normal at baseline but became fractionated after ajmaline administration. In some areas, local activation was absent and unipolar EGMs had a monophasic morphology resembling the shape of the action potential. CONCLUSION: Sodium current reduction with ajmaline severely compromises impulse conduction at the BrS fibrotic substrates by producing fractionated EGMs, conduction block, or excitation failure, leading to the Brugada ECG pattern and favoring ventricular fibrillation genesis.

Protection of intestinal immune barrier against ischemia/reperfusion injury in a swine model using anisodamine hydrobromide

Abstract Intestinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) causes barrier impairment and bacterial influx. This study explored the protective effects of anisodamine hydrobromide (AH) on intestinal I/R injury caused by cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) after cardiac arrest (CA). After successful CPR, minipigs were randomly divided into two groups (n = 8): saline and AH (4 mg/kg), and then treated with saline or AH via central venous injection, respectively. The same procedures without ventricular fibrillation initiation were conducted in the Sham group (n = 8). Levels of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and interleukin 4 (IL-4) were measured at different time points (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 6 h) in serum and 6 h in gut associated lymphoid tissues (GALTs) after the return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) to evaluate changes in the proportion of T-helper type 1 (Th1) and T-helper type 2 (Th2). Moreover, the positive culture rates of GALTs were examined to evaluate bacterial translocation. AH treatment markedly alleviated aberrant arterial blood gas and hemodynamics as well as intestinal macroscopic and morphological changes after CPR. Moreover, AH treatment significantly increased IFN-γ and decreased IL-4 in both serum and GALTs. Furthermore, AH treatment dramatically decreased positive bacterial growth in GALTs. AH treatment mitigated immunosuppression caused by intestinal I/R and protected the intestinal immune barrier against bacterial translocation, thereby reducing the risk of secondary intestinal infection