Special Issue "Viral-Induced Inflammation".

Inflammation is a protective host response essential for controlling viral replication and promoting tissue repair [...].

Microbial lectins as a potential therapeutics for the prevention of certain human diseases.

Lectins are protein or glycoprotein molecules with a specific ability to bind to carbohydrates. From viruses to mammals, they are found in various organisms and exhibit remarkable diverse structures and functions. They are significant contributors to defense mechanisms against microbial attacks in plants. They are also involved in functions such as controlling lymphocyte migration, regulating glycoprotein biosynthesis, cell-cell recognition, and embryonic development in animals. In addition, lectins serve as invaluable molecular tools in various biological and medical disciplines due to their reversible binding ability and enable the monitoring of cell membrane changes in physiological and pathological contexts. Microbial lectins, often referred to as adhesins, play an important role in microbial colonization, pathogenicity, and interactions among microorganisms. Viral lectins are located in the bilayered viral membrane, whereas bacterial lectins are found intracellularly and on the bacterial cell surface. Microfungal lectins are typically intracellular and have various functions in host-parasite interaction, and in fungal growth and morphogenesis. Although microbial lectin studies are less extensive than those of plants and animals, they provide insights into the infection mechanisms and potential interventions. Glycan specificity, essential functions in infectious diseases, and applications in the diagnosis and treatment of viral and bacterial infections are critical aspects of microbial lectin research. In this review, we will discuss the application and therapeutic potential of viral, bacterial and microfungal lectins.

A prospects tool in virus research: Analyzing the applications of organoids in virus studies.

Organoids have emerged as a powerful tool for understanding the biology of the respiratory, digestive, nervous as well as urinary system, investigating infections, and developing new therapies. This article reviews recent progress in the development of organoid and advancements in virus research. The potential applications of these models in studying virul infections, pathogenesis, and antiviral drug discovery are discussed.

How long do nosocomial pathogens persist on inanimate surfaces? A scoping review.

Healthcare hygiene plays a crucial role in the prevention of healthcare-associated infections. Patients admitted to a room where the previous occupant had a multi-drug-resistant bacterial infection are at an increased risk of colonization and infection with the same organism. A 2006 systematic review by Kramer et al. found that certain pathogens can survive for months on dry surfaces. The aim of this review is to update Kramer et al.'s previous review and provide contemporary data on the survival of pathogens relevant to the healthcare environment. We systematically searched Ovid MEDLINE, CINAHL and Scopus databases for studies that described the survival time of common nosocomial pathogens in the environment. Pathogens included in the review were bacterial, viral, and fungal. Studies were independently screened against predetermined inclusion/exclusion criteria by two researchers. Conflicts were resolved by one of two senior researchers. A spreadsheet was developed for the data extraction. The search identified 1736 studies. Following removal of duplicates and application of the search criteria, the synthesis of results from 62 included studies were included. 117 organisms were reported. The longest surviving organism reported was Klebsiella pneumoniae which was found to have persisted for 600 days. Common pathogens of concern to infection prevention and control, can survive or persist on inanimate surfaces for months. This data supports the need for a risk-based approach to cleaning and disinfection practices, accompanied by appropriate training, audit and feedback which are proven to be effective when adopted in a 'bundle' approach.

Wisconsin bill would restrict pathogen studies.

Efforts to ban "gain-of-function" research on viruses and bacteria worry scientists.

Virus replication in the honey bee parasite, Varroa destructor.

IMPORTANCE: The parasitic mite Varroa destructor is a significant driver of worldwide colony losses of our most important commercial pollinator, the Western honey bee Apis mellifera. Declines in honey bee health are frequently attributed to the viruses that mites vector to honey bees, yet whether mites passively transmit viruses as a mechanical vector or actively participate in viral amplification and facilitate replication of honey bee viruses is debated. Our work investigating the antiviral RNA interference response in V. destructor demonstrates that key viruses associated with honey bee declines actively replicate in mites, indicating that they are biological vectors, and the host range of bee-associated viruses extends to their parasites, which could impact virus evolution, pathogenicity, and spread.

U.S. kills effort to hunt dangerous viruses.

Critics feared DEEP VZN project could help pathogens jump from animals to humans.

U.S. scientists brace for greater scrutiny of risky research.

Expert panel recommends broader reviews of research involving pathogens or toxins that could have "dual use".

Stem cells hint at how bats live with viruses.

Research team hits on formula to create stem cells from tissue of adult bats.

Modulation of mitochondria by viral proteins.

Mitochondria are dynamic cellular organelles with diverse functions including energy production, calcium homeostasis, apoptosis, host innate immune signaling, and disease progression. Several viral proteins specifically target mitochondria to subvert host defense as mitochondria stand out as the most suitable target for the invading viruses. They have acquired the capability to control apoptosis, metabolic state, and evade immune responses in host cells, by targeting mitochondria. In this way, the viruses successfully allow the spread of viral progeny and thus the infection. Viruses employ their proteins to alter mitochondrial dynamics and their specific functions by a modulation of membrane potential, reactive oxygen species, calcium homeostasis, and mitochondrial bioenergetics to help them achieve a state of persistent infection. A better understanding of such viral proteins and their impact on mitochondrial forms and functions is the main focus of this review. We also attempt to emphasize the importance of exploring the role of mitochondria in the context of SARS-CoV2 pathogenesis and identify host-virus protein interactions.

Molecular tweezers - a new class of potent broad-spectrum antivirals against enveloped viruses.

A new supramolecular approach to broad spectrum antivirals utilizes host guest chemistry between molecular tweezers and lysine/arginine as well as choline. Basic amino acids in amyloid-forming SEVI peptides (semen-derived enhancers of viral infection) are included inside the tweezer cavity leading to disaggregation and neutralization of the fibrils, which lose their ability to enhance HIV-1/HIV-2 infection. Lipid head groups contain the trimethylammonium cation of choline; this is likewise bound by molecular tweezers, which dock onto viral membranes and thus greatly enhance their surface tension. Disruption of the envelope in turn leads to total loss of infectiosity (ZIKA, Ebola, Influenza). This complexation event also seems to be the structural basis for an effective inihibition of cell-to-cell spread in Herpes viruses. The article describes the discovery of novel molecular recognition motifs and the development of powerful antiviral agents based on these host guest systems. It explains the general underlying mechanisms of antiviral action and points to future optimization and application as therapeutic agents.

Metallic Structures: Effective Agents to Fight Pathogenic Microorganisms.

The current worldwide pandemic caused by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) had alerted the population to the risk that small microorganisms can create for humankind's wellbeing and survival. All of us have been affected, directly or indirectly, by this situation, and scientists all over the world have been trying to find solutions to fight this virus by killing it or by stop/decrease its spread rate. Numerous kinds of microorganisms have been occasionally created panic in world history, and several solutions have been proposed to stop their spread. Among the most studied antimicrobial solutions, are metals (of different kinds and applied in different formats). In this regard, this review aims to present a recent and comprehensive demonstration of the state-of-the-art in the use of metals, as well as their mechanisms, to fight different pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi.

Special Issue "Emerging Virus Infections in Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes".

Dear contributors and readers, [...].

Polysaccharides and Their Derivatives as Potential Antiviral Molecules.

In the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic, it appears that our scientific resources and the medical community are not sufficiently developed to combat rapid viral spread all over the world. A number of viruses causing epidemics have already disseminated across the world in the last few years, such as the dengue or chinkungunya virus, the Ebola virus, and other coronavirus families such as Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV). The outbreaks of these infectious diseases have demonstrated the difficulty of treating an epidemic before the creation of vaccine. Different antiviral drugs already exist. However, several of them cause side effects or have lost their efficiency because of virus mutations. It is essential to develop new antiviral strategies, but ones that rely on more natural compounds to decrease the secondary effects. Polysaccharides, which have come to be known in recent years for their medicinal properties, including antiviral activities, are an excellent alternative. They are essential for the metabolism of plants, microorganisms, and animals, and are directly extractible. Polysaccharides have attracted more and more attention due to their therapeutic properties, low toxicity, and availability, and seem to be attractive candidates as antiviral drugs of tomorrow.

Prevalence and Clinical Impact of Coinfection in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Korea.

Coinfection rates with other pathogens in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) varied during the pandemic. We assessed the latest prevalence of coinfection with viruses, bacteria, and fungi in COVID-19 patients for more than one year and its impact on mortality. A total of 436 samples were collected between August 2020 and October 2021. Multiplex real-time PCR, culture, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing were performed to detect pathogens. The coinfection rate of respiratory viruses in COVID-19 patients was 1.4%. Meanwhile, the rates of bacteria and fungi were 52.6% and 10.5% in hospitalized COVID-19 patients, respectively. Respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus, Acinetobacter baumannii, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans were the most commonly detected pathogens. Ninety percent of isolated A. baumannii was non-susceptible to carbapenem. Based on a multivariate analysis, coinfection (odds ratio [OR] = 6.095), older age (OR = 1.089), and elevated lactate dehydrogenase (OR = 1.006) were risk factors for mortality as a critical outcome. In particular, coinfection with bacteria (OR = 11.250), resistant pathogens (OR = 11.667), and infection with multiple pathogens (OR = 10.667) were significantly related to death. Screening and monitoring of coinfection in COVID-19 patients, especially for hospitalized patients during the pandemic, are beneficial for better management and survival.

Exploring the Role of Innate Lymphocytes in the Immune System of Bats and Virus-Host Interactions.

Bats are reservoirs of a large number of viruses of global public health significance, including the ancestral virus for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Although bats are natural carriers of multiple pathogenic viruses, they rarely display signs of disease. Recent insights suggest that bats have a more balanced host defense and tolerance system to viral infections that may be linked to the evolutionary adaptation to powered flight. Therefore, a deeper understanding of bat immune system may provide intervention strategies to prevent zoonotic disease transmission and to identify new therapeutic targets. Similar to other eutherian mammals, bats have both innate and adaptive immune systems that have evolved to detect and respond to invading pathogens. Bridging these two systems are innate lymphocytes, which are highly abundant within circulation and barrier tissues. These cells share the characteristics of both innate and adaptive immune cells and are poised to mount rapid effector responses. They are ideally suited as the first line of defense against early stages of viral infections. Here, we will focus on the current knowledge of innate lymphocytes in bats, their function, and their potential role in host-pathogen interactions. Moreover, given that studies into bat immune systems are often hindered by a lack of bat-specific research tools, we will discuss strategies that may aid future research in bat immunity, including the potential use of organoid models to delineate the interplay between innate lymphocytes, bat viruses, and host tolerance.

A case of convergent evolution: Several viral and bacterial pathogens hijack RSK kinases through a common linear motif.

Microbes have been coevolving with their host for millions of years, exploiting host resources to their own benefit. We show that viral and bacterial pathogens convergently evolved to hijack cellular mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p90-ribosomal S6-kinases (RSKs). Theiler's virus leader (L) protein binds RSKs and prevents their dephosphorylation, thus maintaining the kinases active. Recruitment of RSKs enables L-protein-mediated inhibition of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha kinase 2 (EIF2AK2 or PKR) and stress granule formation. Strikingly, ORF45 protein of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and YopM protein of Yersinia use the same peptide motif as L to recruit and activate RSKs. All three proteins interact with a conserved surface-located loop of RSKs, likely acting as an allosteric regulation site. Some unrelated viruses and bacteria thus evolved to harness RSKs in a common fashion, yet to target distinct aspects of innate immunity. As documented for Varicella zoster virus ORF11, additional pathogens likely evolved to hijack RSKs, using a similar short linear motif.

UVC inactivation of pathogenic samples suitable for cryo-EM analysis.

Cryo-electron microscopy has become an essential tool to understand structure and function of biological samples. Especially for pathogens, such as disease-causing bacteria and viruses, insights gained by cryo-EM can aid in developing cures. However, due to the biosafety restrictions of pathogens, samples are often treated by chemical fixation to render the pathogen inert, affecting the ultrastructure of the sample. Alternatively, researchers use in vitro or ex vivo models, which are non-pathogenic but lack the complexity of the pathogen of interest. Here we show that ultraviolet-C (UVC) radiation applied at cryogenic temperatures can be used to eliminate or dramatically reduce the infectivity of Vibrio cholerae and the bacterial virus, the ICP1 bacteriophage. We show no discernable structural impact of this treatment of either sample using two cryo-EM methods: cryo-electron tomography followed by sub-tomogram averaging, and single particle analysis (SPA). Additionally, we applied the UVC irradiation to the protein apoferritin (ApoF), which is a widely used test sample for high-resolution SPA studies. The UVC-treated ApoF sample resulted in a 2.1 Å structure indistinguishable from an untreated published map. This research demonstrates that UVC treatment is an effective and inexpensive addition to the cryo-EM sample preparation toolbox.

Temperature dependent viral tropism: understanding viral seasonality and pathogenicity as applied to the avoidance and treatment of endemic viral respiratory illnesses.

This review seeks to explain three features of viral respiratory illnesses that have perplexed generations of virologists: (1) the seasonal timing of respiratory illness and the rapid response of outbreaks to weather, specifically temperature; (2) the common viruses causing respiratory illness worldwide, including year-round disease in the Tropics; (3) the rapid arrival and termination of epidemics caused by influenza and other viruses. The inadequacy of the popular explanations of seasonality is discussed, and a simple hypothesis is proposed, called temperature dependent viral tropism (TDVT), that is compatible with the above features of respiratory illness. TDVT notes that viruses can spread more effectively if they moderate their pathogenicity (thereby maintaining host mobility) and suggests that endemic respiratory viruses accomplish this by developing thermal sensitivity within a range that supports organ-specific viral tropism within the human body, whereby they replicate most rapidly at temperatures below body temperature. This can confine them to the upper respiratory tract and allow them to avoid infecting the lungs, heart, gut etc. Biochemical and tissue-culture studies show that 'wild' respiratory viruses show such natural thermal sensitivity. The typical early autumn surge of colds and the occurrence of respiratory illness in the Tropics year-round at intermediate levels are explained by the tendency for strains to adapt their thermal sensitivity to their local climate and season. TDVT has important practical implications for preventing and treating respiratory illness including Covid-19. It is testable with many options for experiments to increase our understanding of viral seasonality and pathogenicity.

ViMIC: a database of human disease-related virus mutations, integration sites and cis-effects.

Molecular mechanisms of virus-related diseases involve multiple factors, including viral mutation accumulation and integration of a viral genome into the host DNA. With increasing attention being paid to virus-mediated pathogenesis and the development of many useful technologies to identify virus mutations (VMs) and viral integration sites (VISs), much research on these topics is available in PubMed. However, knowledge of VMs and VISs is widely scattered in numerous published papers which lack standardization, integration and curation. To address these challenges, we built a pilot database of human disease-related Virus Mutations, Integration sites and Cis-effects (ViMIC), which specializes in three features: virus mutation sites, viral integration sites and target genes. In total, the ViMIC provides information on 31 712 VMs entries, 105 624 VISs, 16 310 viral target genes and 1 110 015 virus sequences of eight viruses in 77 human diseases obtained from the public domain. Furthermore, in ViMIC users are allowed to explore the cis-effects of virus-host interactions by surveying 78 histone modifications, binding of 1358 transcription regulators and chromatin accessibility on these VISs. We believe ViMIC will become a valuable resource for the virus research community. The database is available at http://bmtongji.cn/ViMIC/index.php.