Photo-catalytic dye degradation potentials of Ag-Pd bimetallic nanoparticles synthesized from Vitex negundo.

Plant extracts are a great alternative to synthesizing nanoparticles of different metals and metal oxides. This green synthesis method has opened up numerous possibilities in various scientific domains. In present study, Leaf extract from Vitex negundo is a non-deciduous, long-lasting shrub from the Verbenaceae family is used as capping and reducing agents for the synthesis of silver and palladium nanoparticles. The characterization study UV-vis spectrophotometer analysis showed absorbance value around 320 nm which confirming that Ag-Pd nanoparticles have been successfully obtained. Further, SEM is used to investigate the morphology of Ag-Pd NPs, which revealing their spherical and rod-like configuration, aggregation, and the size of the particles are obtained between 50 and 100 nm. The successful synthesis of Ag-Pd NPs was further confirmed by the EDAX chart, which displayed the peak of Ag and Pd at bending energies between 0.5 and 1.5 keV. According to the quantitative study, Ag and Pd ions found about 5.24 and 13.28%, respectively. In addition, surface studies with TEM confirming that synthesized Ag-Pd NPs are predominates with spheres structure morphologies, with sizes averaging 11.20 nm and ranging from 10 to 20 nm. Further, Ag-Pd nanoparticles was applied as potential photocatalyst materials to degrade methylene blue dye and found about 85% of the degradation efficiency within 150 min of the sunlight exposure thus could be used as catalyst to removal of hazardous organic dye molecules.

Mitigation of letrozole induced polycystic ovarian syndrome associated inflammatory response and endocrinal dysfunction by Vitex negundo seeds.

BACKGROUND: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a complex endocrine disorder in women that necessitates effective and safe treatment alternatives. This study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of Vitex negundo seed in a letrozole-induced PCOS rat model. RESULTS: Findings of the present study demonstrated that administration of hydro-ethanolic extract of Vitex negundo (VNE) effectively restored endocrino-metabolic imbalances associated with PCOS, along with correction of antioxidant enzymes level, proinflammatory cytokines, and apoptotic bio-markers. LC-MS analysis confirmed the presence of cinnamic acid, plumbagin and nigundin B as the prominent phytochemicals in VNE. The observed beneficial effects could be attributed to the active compounds in Vitex negundo extract, which exhibited hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and catabolic effects on body weight. Additionally, the extract contributed to hormonal balance regulation by modulating the steroidogenic enzymes, specifically by tuning gonadotropins level and correcting the LH:FSH ratio, through the modulation of ERα signalling and downregulation of NR3C4 expression. The antioxidant properties of phytochemicals in Vitex negundo seed were apparent through the correction of SOD and catalase activity. While it's anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic action were associated with the regulation of mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-6, BAX, Bcl2. Molecular docking study further indicated the molecular interaction of above mentioned active phytocompounds of VNE with ERα, NR3C4 and with TNFα that plays a critical mechanistic gateway to the regulation of hormone signalling as well as synchronizing the inflammation cascade. Furthermore, the histomorphological improvement of the ovaries supported the ameliorative action of Vitex negundo extract in the letrozole-induced PCOS model. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates the potential of Vitex negundo seed as a multifaceted therapeutic option for PCOS. VNE offers a holistic strategy for PCOS with antiandrogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, driven by its major compounds like cinnamic acid, plumbagine, and nigundin B.

Triterpenoids and triterpenoid saponins from Vitex negundo and their anti-inflammatory activities.

Seven undescribed polyoxygenated ursane-type triterpenoids (vitnegundins A-G), three undescribed triterpenoid saponins (vitnegundins H-J), and 17 known ones were isolated from an EtOH extract of the aerial parts of Vitex negundo L. The structures of the undescribed compounds were established by extensive spectroscopic analysis. The absolute configurations of vitnegundins A, B, and E were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction data. Vitnegundins B-D are pentacyclic triterpenoids possessing rare cis-fused C/D rings and vitnegundins C-H represent undescribed ursane-type triterpenoids with 12,19-epoxy moiety. In the biological activity assay, vitnegundin A, vitnegundin E, and swinhoeic acid displayed inhibitory effects against LPS-induced NO release in BV-2 microglial cells, with IC50 values of 11.8, 44.2, and 19.6 µM, respectively.

Isolation of New Diterpenoids from the Halophyte, Vitex rotundifolia, and their Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Activities.

In this study, three diterpenoids (1-3), including one known compound (1), were isolated from the fruits of Vitex rotundifolia and their structures were determined via spectroscopic analysis. In lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, these compounds dose-dependently decreased the intracellular reactive oxygen species levels and nitric oxide production compared to those in the control cells. At 25 µM/mL, these compounds also diminished the protein expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2, and interleukin-6, with compound 3 exhibiting the most potent inhibitory effect.

Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties and isolation and characterization of a new bioactive compound, 3,4,9-trimethyl-7-propyldecanoic acid from Vitex negundo.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Herbal medicines derived from plant extraction are affordable, more therapeutically effective, and have fewer side effects than contemporary medications. Vitex negundo L. (V. negundo). is a medicinal shrub, which contains numerous phytoconstituents. In ancient medicinal practices, V. negundo was primarily prescribed as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory drug. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study aims to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant characteristics of crude extracts from V. negundo leaves, including those derived from petroleum ether (P), methanol (M), and aqueous (A) solvents. Additionally, the research seeks to identify the specific bioactive compounds responsible for these observed properties. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The nitric oxide scavenging study was performed to evaluate the V. negundo crude extract's ability to function as a nitric oxide scavenger. Protein denaturation and proteinase inhibition experiments were employed to study the ability of extracts to suppress proteolysis and inhibit the enzymes that cause tissue injury. The membrane-stabilizing potency of plant extracts were examined through the process of heat-induced hemolysis. The ability of the extracts to neutralize free radicals showed a dose-dependent response, and the aqueous extract exhibited substantially higher activity in both FRAP and DPPH. The GC-MS analysis of V. negundo extracts revealed a vast array of pharmacologically active metabolites. Based on this Bioassay-guided fractionation approach, the optimal extract was selected for the potent molecule isolation and characterization. RESULTS: The findings demonstrated that the aqueous extract of V. negundo exhibited markedly superior radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory capabilities compared to the other two extracts. Furthermore, a new molecule, 3,4,9-trimethyl-7-propyldecanoic acid was isolated from this extract, and its chemical structure was successfully determined. CONCLUSION: This study revealed that the aqueous extract of V. negundo demonstrated notably stronger in vitro anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties in comparison to the methanol and petroleum ether extracts. The identified active compound, 3,4,9-trimethyl-7-propyldecanoic acid is likely responsible for the extract's free radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory effects. Furthermore, conducting both in vitro and in vivo studies is crucial to substantiate the potential of this active constituent for the development of an anti-inflammatory drug derived from V. negundo.

Chemical Diversity and Medicinal Potential of Vitex negundo L.: From Traditional Knowledge to Modern Clinical Trials.

BACKGROUND: In Vedic context, Nirgundi (V. negundo) has been utilized for its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and wound-healing properties. It has been employed to alleviate pain, treat skin conditions, and address various ailments. The plant's leaves, roots, and seeds have all found applications in traditional remedies. The knowledge of Nirgundi's medicinal benefits has been passed down through generations, and it continues to be a part of Ayurvedic and traditional medicine practices in India.

Three Undescribed Iridoid Derivatives Isolated from the Fruits of Vitex trifolia with Their Cytotoxic and Antimicrobial Activities.

Vitex trifolia L. is a medicinal plant and widely distributed in the northern mountainous areas of Vietnam. Phytochemical study on the fruits of this plant led to the isolation of nine iridoid derivatives (1-9) including three undescribed compounds (1-3). Their structures were elucidated to be 3''-hydroxyscrophuloside A1 (1), 3''-hydroxycallicoside D (2), 2'-p-hydroxybenzoylaucubin (3), 6'-p-hydroxybenzoylmussaenosidic acid (4), nishindaside (5), agnuside (6), 10-O-vanilloylaucubin (7), 6'-O-p-hydroxybenzoyl-gardoside (8), and buddlejoside B (9) based on extensive analyses of HR-ESI-MS, 1D and 2D NMR spectra. Compounds 1, 2, 4, and 8 significantly posessed anti-barterial activity against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains with MIC values in range of 16-64 µg/mL. At concentration of 20 µM, compounds 1-9 did not show cytotoxic effects against human lung cancer cells (PC9).

Wild Vitex agnus-castus L.: Phytochemical Characterization, Acute Toxicity, and Bioactive Properties.

Wild Vitex agnus-castus (VAC) is a Mediterranean plant that is rich in bioactive metabolites. This study aimed to validate, for the first time, the beneficial use of VAC fruits and fruit decoctions (VFDs) through in vitro and in vivo trials. Forty-one volatile components were detected in VAC fruits, with 1,8-cineole (30.3%) comprising the majority. The antioxidant activity of VFD was measured by using different in vitro methods (EC50 of 0.16 mg/mL by ß-carotene bleaching inhibition assay) and by measuring the DNA protection power. Using the disc diffusion assay, the antimicrobial activity of VFD was evaluated, and it exhibited a noticeable anticandidal activity. VFD did not cause any toxicity or mortality in rats treated with doses > 200 mg/kg. Using the acetic acid writhing test, the antinociceptive activity of VFD was measured. Our results showed that VFD at 200 mg/kg exhibited a higher analgesic activity (81.68%) than acetylsalicylic acid used as a positive control (74.35%). Its gastroprotective ability was assessed by HCl/ethanol-induced gastric lesions, which were remarkably inhibited (84.62%) by intraperitoneal administration of VFD. This work helps to validate the popular use of VAC to treat nociceptive, inflammatory, and gastric disorders and encourages researchers to further investigate the identification of pharmacological compounds from this species.

New Halogenated Flavonoids from Adenosma bracteosum and Vitex negundo and Their α-Glucosidase Inhibition.

Adenosma bracteosum and Vitex negundo are natural sources of methoxylated flavonoids. Little is known about the α-glucosidase inhibition of multi-methoxylated flavonoid derivatives. Eighteen natural flavonoids were isolated from A. bracteosum and V. negundo. Seven halogenated derivatives were synthesized. Their chemical structures were elucidated by extensive NMR analysis and high-resolution mass spectroscopy as well as comparisons in literature. All compounds were evaluated for their α-glucosidase inhibition. Most compounds showed good activity with IC50 values ranging from 16.7 to 421.8 µM. 6,8-Dibromocatechin was the most active compound with an IC50 value of 16.7 µM. A molecular docking study was conducted, indicating that those compounds are potent α-glucosidase inhibitors.

[Comparison of HPLC fingerprints and determination of main components of Viticis Fructus from different species].

In order to comprehensively evaluate the quality of Viticis Fructus, this study established HPLC fingerprints and evaluated the quality of 24 batches of Viticis Fructus samples from different species by similarity evaluation and multivariate statistical analysis(PCA, HCA, PLS-DA). On this basis, an HPLC method was established to compare the content differences of the main components, including casticin, agnuside, homoorientin, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid. The analysis was performed on the chromatographic column(Waters Symmetry C_(18)) with a gradient mobile phase of acetonitrile(A)-0.05% phosphoric acid solution(B) at the flow rate of 1 mL·min~(-1) and detection wavelength of 258 nm. The column temperature was 30 ℃ and the injection volume was 10 µL. The HPLC fingerprint of 24 batches of Viticis Fructus samples was established with 21 common peaks, and nine peaks were identified. Similarity analysis was carried out based on chromatographic data of 24 batches of chromatographic data of Viticis Fructus, and the results showed that except for DYMJ-16, the similarity of Vitex trifolia var. simplicifolia was ≥0.900, while that of V. trifolia was ≤0.864. In addition, the similarity analysis of two different species showed that the similarity of 16 batches of V. trifolia var. simplicifolia was 0.894-0.997 and that of the eight batches of V. trifolia was between 0.990 and 0.997. The results showed that the similarity of fingerprints of these two species was different, but the similarity between the same species was good. The results of the three multivariate statistical analyses were consistent, which could distinguish the two different species. The VIP analysis results of PLS-DA showed that casticin and agnuside contributed the most to the distinction. The content determination results showed that there was no significant difference in the content of homoorientin and p-hydroxybenzoic acid in Viticis Fructus from different species, but the content of casticin and agnuside was significantly different in different species(P<0.01). The content of casticin was higher in V. trifolia var. simplicifolia, while agnuside was higher in V. trifolia. The findings of this study show that there are differences in fingerprint similarity and component content of Viticis Fructus from different species, which can provide references for the in-depth study of the quality and clinical application of Viticis Fructus.

Iridoid derivatives from Vitex rotundifolia L. f. with their anti-inflammatory activity.

Three undescribed iridoid glucosides and nine known compounds were isolated from Vitex rotundifolia L. f. Their structural elucidation was performed based on their spectroscopic data or acid hydrolysis followed by HPLC analysis and comparison of their NMR data with those reported in the literature. These iridoids were then evaluated for inflammatory effects through inhibition on NO production level in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The active compounds, rotundifoliin C, isonishindacin A, agnuside, and eurostoside, were further investigated for their anti-inflammatory mechanisms of action on expression levels of iNOS and COX-2 proteins. In addition, V. rotundifolia fractions also significantly inhibited LPS-induced IL-8 production, with IC50 values ranging from 9.81 to 54.31 µg/mL. Rotundifoliin A, agnuside, VR-I (10-O-vanilloyl aucubin), and eurostoside showed inhibition rates of 55.5%, 94.6%, 55.6%, and 81.9% on IL-8 production at concentrations of 100 µM, respectively, compared to those of control without sample addition. The therapeutic properties of the plant might give rise to develop the functional products to treat inflammatory diseases.

Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L.: A review on their traditional medicine, phytochemistry, pharmacology.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. belong to the genus Vitex, and Vitex rotundifolia L. f. evolved from Vitex trifolia L. Both are essential ethnic medicinal plants with a long history, commonly used to treat headaches, fever, diarrhea, hair loss, wound recovery, and other diseases. AIM OF THE REVIEW: The research status of Vitex trifolia L. and its relative species Vitex rotundifolia L. f. were reviewed from the aspects of traditional medicinal use, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities, to provide a reference for the further development and utilization of Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this paper, a comprehensive search of published literature was conducted through various books and online databases to obtain relevant information on Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. The search terms "(Vitex rotundifolia) OR (Vitex trifolia) OR (Fructus viticis)" were entered in PubMed, Web of Science, China national knowledge infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang Data, Baidu Scholar, respectively. In addition to setting the year threshold of "2018-2022" on Baidu Scholar, other databases searched all fields and found 889, 283, 1263, 1023, and 147 articles, respectively. Among them, review, repetition, overlapping data, and other reasons were excluded, and finally, a total of 164 articles were included in the review study. RESULTS: A total of 369 compounds have been identified, including 159 terpenoids, 51 flavonoids, 83 phenylpropanoids, and 76 other compounds. Pharmacological studies have shown that Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. have a variety of pharmacological activities, such as anti-tumor, analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, and estrogen-like activity. Modern clinical use for treating cold headaches, diarrhea dysentery, irregular menstruation, and other diseases. CONCLUSIONS: As traditional medicinal plants, Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. have wealthy chemical constituents and extensive pharmacological activities and are widely used in clinical practice from traditional to modern times. However, the research on the pharmacological activities of Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. is not in-depth, and the potential active components still need to be explored.

Anti-bacterial Effect and Characteristics of Gold Nanoparticles (AuNps) Formed with Vitex negundo Plant Extract.

Our current study reports the anti-bacterial activity of the gold nanoparticles (AuNps) synthesized by the green synthesis method using Vitex negundo plant leaves. The aqueous extract of Vitex negundo plant leaves are acting as the capping and stabilizing agent in the synthesis of AuNps. It is already evident from earlier studies that Vitex negundo is an abundant source of polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, and many other biologically active compounds. The present study reveals the potential of biologically active compounds from the plant in the reduction reaction of chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) into gold nanoparticles. The green synthesis method is adapted instead of the chemical method, which is toxic and more expensive. The gold nanoparticles subjected to characterization with the help of UV-visible spectroscopy, FTIR to determine functional groups, light scattering to estimate size and uniformity, scanning emission microscopy with EDX for accurate size and shape of AuNps, and X-ray diffraction to reveal the crystalline structure. The characteristics of AuNps formed are UV reading at 520 nm, FTIR showing the presence of phenols and alkenes, DLS, SEM, and XRD confirming the spherical shape with the size around 70-90 nm. The anti-bacterial activity of the gold nanoparticles is evaluated against four different species of bacteria, each two gram-positive and gram-negative. The gold nanoparticles formed by Vitex negundo show good anti-bacterial activity against Salmonella typhi and M. luteus bacteria with a zone of inhibition of 6 mm and 2 mm respectively. Furthermore, the cytotoxic activities of the gold nanoparticles are yet to be known to their full extent.

Comparison of HPLC fingerprints and determination of main components of Viticis Fructus from different species / 中国中药杂志

In order to comprehensively evaluate the quality of Viticis Fructus, this study established HPLC fingerprints and evaluated the quality of 24 batches of Viticis Fructus samples from different species by similarity evaluation and multivariate statistical analysis(PCA, HCA, PLS-DA). On this basis, an HPLC method was established to compare the content differences of the main components, including casticin, agnuside, homoorientin, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid. The analysis was performed on the chromatographic column(Waters Symmetry C_(18)) with a gradient mobile phase of acetonitrile(A)-0.05% phosphoric acid solution(B) at the flow rate of 1 mL·min~(-1) and detection wavelength of 258 nm. The column temperature was 30 ℃ and the injection volume was 10 μL. The HPLC fingerprint of 24 batches of Viticis Fructus samples was established with 21 common peaks, and nine peaks were identified. Similarity analysis was carried out based on chromatographic data of 24 batches of chromatographic data of Viticis Fructus, and the results showed that except for DYMJ-16, the similarity of Vitex trifolia var. simplicifolia was ≥0.900, while that of V. trifolia was ≤0.864. In addition, the similarity analysis of two different species showed that the similarity of 16 batches of V. trifolia var. simplicifolia was 0.894-0.997 and that of the eight batches of V. trifolia was between 0.990 and 0.997. The results showed that the similarity of fingerprints of these two species was different, but the similarity between the same species was good. The results of the three multivariate statistical analyses were consistent, which could distinguish the two different species. The VIP analysis results of PLS-DA showed that casticin and agnuside contributed the most to the distinction. The content determination results showed that there was no significant difference in the content of homoorientin and p-hydroxybenzoic acid in Viticis Fructus from different species, but the content of casticin and agnuside was significantly different in different species(P<0.01). The content of casticin was higher in V. trifolia var. simplicifolia, while agnuside was higher in V. trifolia. The findings of this study show that there are differences in fingerprint similarity and component content of Viticis Fructus from different species, which can provide references for the in-depth study of the quality and clinical application of Viticis Fructus.

The mechanisms underlying the role of Vitex agnus-castus in mastalgia.

Medicinal plants exert therapeutic effects or have beneficial healing functions on the human or animal body. Medicinal plants are widely used in traditional medicine as an interesting alternative and/or complementary to science-based medicine. Compared to chemical drugs, medicinal plants have a lower risk of side effects, are eco-friendly, and have cost-effective production. This encouraged researchers to extensively exploit them for their therapeutic use. One of the most well-known medicinal plants is Vitex agnus-castus L., which belongs to the Verbenaceae family. This shrub tree is mainly grown in tropical and sub-tropical regions. The parts of VAC, especially berries and leaves, contain essential oils, flavonoids, and diterpenes. Many medical benefits of VAC have already been reported, including mastalgia, regulating menstrual cycles and premenstrual complaints, and infertility. Respiratory and cardiovascular effects are also reported. In this review, we will analyze and characterize the known roles of VAC in mastalgia, as well as the mechanism of action reported in in vitro and/or in vivo studies, and show the potential for alternative therapeutic uses in mastalgia, also known as breast pain (Fig. 2, Ref. 40). Keywords: mastalgia, Vitex agnus-castus, therapy, traditional medicine.

Anticholinergic, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Properties of Vitex Agnus-Castus L. Seed Extract: Assessment of Its Phenolic Content by LC/MS/MS.

In this current study, Vitex agnus-castus seed ethanol extracts were analyzed for their phytochemical component content, anticholinergic and antioxidant activities, and antibacterial properties. The phenolic compound composition of these seeds was determined by using LC/MS/MS. Antioxidant activity of the seeds was examined by the DPPH, ABTS, Fe3+ -Fe2+ reducing, and CUPRAC. Also, the anticholinergic activity was measured by the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). The antibacterial activity was performed by disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration methods. The main phenolic compound was vanillic acid (22812.05 µg/L) and followed by luteolin, fumaric acid, quercetin, caffeic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, salicylic acid, kaempferol, butein, ellagic acid, resveratrol, catechin hydrate, phloridzin dehydrate, naringenin, respectively. The DPPH free radical scavenging value of ethanol extract of plant seeds was 9.41 %, while the ABTS radical scavenging activity was determined as 12.66 %. The ethanol extract of the seeds exhibited antibacterial activity on Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella Typhimurium, differently. S. aureus was found to be more susceptible to the extract than other bacteria. Also, the inhibition effect of seed ethanolic extract on the AChE with IC50 values were 36.34±5.6 µg/mL. From the results, V. agnus-castus seed can be suggested as a promising natural antioxidant and antibacterial candidate for the preservation of foods.

Phenolic Glucosides from the Leaves of Vitex negundo var. cannabifolia.

Four new phenolic glucosides, cannabifolins G-J (1-4), together with four known ones (5-8), were isolated from the leaves of Vitex negundo var. cannabifolia. Their structures were established by comprehensive analysis of 1D and 2D NMR data and comparison of their spectroscopic and physical data with the literature values. Compound 7 exhibited weak inhibition of nitric oxide production stimulated by lipopolysaccharide in BV-2 microglial cells with IC50 value of 132.8 µM.

Diterpenoids with α-glucosidase inhibitory activities from the fruits of Vitex trifolia Linn.

Viticis Fructus, known as "Man-jing-zi", are the fruits of the traditional Chinese medicine Vitex trifolia Linn. and its variant Vitex trifolia Linn. var. simplicifolia. These fruits are used as folk medicines to treat various diseases. Although V. trifolia is useful for treating diabetes, the antidiabetic effect of its purified constituents is still under investigation. The phytochemical investigation on the ethanol extract of the fruits of V. trifolia yielded four new labdane diterpenoids vitetrolins A-D (1-4), together with seven (5-11) known analogs. The structures of these compounds were elucidated by spectroscopy techniques and the absolute configuration of 4 was determined by electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. The isolated diterpenoids were evaluated for their α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. Compounds 5, 6, 8, and 9 exhibited moderate inhibitory activities against α-glucosidase with IC50 values ranging from 44.9 ± 6.1 to 70.5 ± 5.5 µM.

Evaluation of anticandidal activities and phytochemical examination of extracts prepared from Vitex agnus-castus: a possible alternative in treating candidiasis infections.

BACKGROUND: Candidiasis infection is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Fungicidal resistance of some commercially used fungicides ascended the need for a naturally effective alternative. The current study aimed to evaluate the fungicidal activity of Vitex agnus-castus extracts in vitro against some Candida species. METHODS: The bioactive compounds contained in the crude and alcoholic extracts were compared, and the antioxidant activity was tested, as well. The phytochemical analysis was carried out by Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). The scavenger activity of the tested extracts was tested, as well. The anticandidal activity was tested to detect the effect of the tested extracts on the mycelial growth of Candida albicans, Candida krusei, Candida parapsilosis, Candia tropicalis, Candida famata, Candida rhodotorula, and Candida dublinesis. The minimum inhibitory concentrations were calculated for all reported activities. The Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and the Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) were used to detect the morphological and ultrastructure response in some selected species. RESULTS: FTIR and GC/MS revealed the existence of different bioactive chemical groups such as polyphenols, fatty acids, terpenes, terpenoids, steroids, aldehydes, alcohols, and esters, phytol which is a diterpene. DPPH results confirmed the antioxidant activity of all extracts where the methanolic extract was the strongest scavenging substrate. All extracts showed strong inhibitory effects against different species at a concentration of 200 µg/ml (P < 0.001). SEM and TEM showed morphological and ultrastructure changes in C. famata. CONCLUSION: The current study suggested a reliable antifungal activity of different extracts of Vitex agnus-castus against different Candida species and strains. However, further studies are required to confirm the safety of these extracts to be used in medical applications.

Repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study of Vitex megapotamica (Spreng.) Moldenke.

Vitex megapotamica (Spreng.) Moldenke is a plant with medicinal properties popularly used in Brazil to treat diabetes and obesity. Despite the promising use of this plant, are still incipient toxicology studies on prolonged periods of treatment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study of V. megapotamica methanolic extract (VMME) in male and female Wistar rats. Different groups of rats (n = 8) were treated daily with three different doses of VMME (100, 300, and 900 mg/kg) or vehicle (filtered water). Body weight, water, and feed consumption, and clinical and behavioral changes were monitored daily. At the end of the experimental period, blood samples were obtained for hematological and biochemical analyzes. After euthanasia, the vital organs were removed for the determination of relative weight and for histopathological analysis. No clinical signs of toxicity or mortality were found during the experimental period. Treatment with VMME did not induce any change in body weight gain, eating patterns, and behavior. We found no statistically significant changes in the different hematological and biochemical parameters evaluated. The relative weight of the organs and histopathological analysis did not show any significant change when compared to animals treated with the vehicle. The data obtained in this study allow us to conclude that the VMME obtained from V. megapotamica is safe after a repeated-dose 90-day oral toxicity study in male and female Wistar rats.