Wolbachia detection in Aedes aegypti using MALDI-TOF MS coupled to artificial intelligence.

The mosquito Aedes aegypti is the major vector of arboviruses like dengue, Zika and chikungunya viruses. Attempts to reduce arboviruses emergence focusing on Ae. aegypti control has proven challenging due to the increase of insecticide resistances. An emerging strategy which consists of releasing Ae. aegypti artificially infected with Wolbachia in natural mosquito populations is currently being developed. The monitoring of Wolbachia-positive Ae. aegypti in the field is performed in order to ensure the program effectiveness. Here, the reliability of the Matrix­Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization­Time Of Flight (MALDI­TOF) coupled with the machine learning methods like Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to detect Wolbachia in field Ae. aegypti was assessed for the first time. For this purpose, laboratory reared and field Ae. aegypti were analyzed. The results showed that the CNN recognized Ae. aegypti spectral patterns associated with Wolbachia-infection. The MALDI-TOF coupled with the CNN (sensitivity = 93%, specificity = 99%, accuracy = 97%) was more efficient than the loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and as efficient as qPCR for Wolbachia detection. It therefore represents an interesting method to evaluate the prevalence of Wolbachia in field Ae. aegypti mosquitoes.

Angiogenesis in cardiopulmonary dirofilariosis: does the Wolbachia surface protein have a pro- or anti-angiogenic effect?

Cardiopulmonary dirofilariosis caused by Dirofilaria immitis produces inflammation, blood vessel obstruction and hypoxia, which are required conditions for the beginning of the process of neovascularization. Since D. immitis harbours intracellular symbiotic Wolbachia bacterium, the global understanding of the angiogenic process requires the analysis of the effect of the parasite molecules, but also that of Wolbachia. Canine primary lung microvascular endothelial cells were treated with the recombinant Wolbachia surface protein (rWSP) and the expression of angiogenic factors like Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-A (VEGF-A), sFlt, membrane Endoglin (mEndoglin) and soluble Endoglin (sEndoglin), as well as the in vitro formation of pseudocapillaries, were measured. The analyses showed a significant increase in the expression of pro-angiogenic VEGF-A and anti-angiogenic sEndoglin, together with a significant decrease in both pro-angiogenic mEndoglin and pseudocapillary formation, compared to untreated controls. Due to the complexity of the angiogenic process and its relationship with other physiological processes like inflammation and fibrinolysis, these results might suggest that rWSP participate in various mechanisms related to each other and its effects might depend either on the balance between them or on the moment of their occurrence.

Angiogenic response in an in vitro model of dog microvascular endothelial cells stimulated with antigenic extracts from Dirofilaria immitis adult worms.

BACKGROUND: Angiogenesis can occur under pathological conditions when stimuli such as inflammation, vascular obstruction or hypoxia exist. These stimuli are present in cardiopulmonary dirofilariosis (Dirofilaria immitis). The aim of this study was to analyze the capacity of D. immitis antigens to modify the expression of angiogenic factors and trigger the formation of pseudocapillaries (tube-like structures) in an in vitro model of endothelial cells. METHODS: The expression of VEGF-A, sFlt, mEndoglin and sEndoglin in cultures of canine microvascular endothelial cells stimulated with extract of adult worms of D. immitis obtained from an untreated dog (DiSA) and from a dog treated for 15 days with doxycycline (tDiSA), was determined by using commercial kits. The capacity of pseudocapillary formation was evaluated analyzing cell connections and cell groups in Matrigel cell cultures stimulated with DiSA and tDiSA. In both cases non-stimulated cultures were used as controls. RESULTS: First, we demonstrated that worms obtained from the dog treated with doxycycline showed a significantly lower amount of Wolbachia (less than 60%) than worms removed from the untreated dog. Only DiSA was able to significantly increase the expression of the proangiogenic factor VEGF-A in the endotelial cells cultures. None of the D. immitis extracts modified the expression of sFlt. tDiSA extract was able to modify the expression of the endoglins, significantly decreasing the expression of the pro-angiogenic mEndoglin and increasing the anti-angiogenic sEndoglin. The formation of pseudocapillaries was negatively influenced by tDiSA, which reduced the organization and number of cellular connections. CONCLUSIONS: The ability of antigens from adult D. immitis worms to modify the expression of pro and anti-angiogenic factors in endotelial cell cultures was demonstrated, as well as the trend to form pseudocapillaries in vitro. The capacity of stimulation may be linked to the amount of Wolbachia present in the antigenic extracts.

A Role for the Insulin Receptor in the Suppression of Dengue Virus and Zika Virus in Wolbachia-Infected Mosquito Cells.

Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes are refractory to super-infection with arthropod-borne pathogens, but the role of host cell signaling proteins in pathogen-blocking mechanisms remains to be elucidated. Here, we use an antibody microarray approach to provide a comprehensive picture of the signaling response of Aedes aegypti-derived cells to Wolbachia. This approach identifies the host cell insulin receptor as being downregulated by the bacterium. Furthermore, siRNA-mediated knockdown and treatment with a small-molecule inhibitor of the insulin receptor kinase concur to assign a crucial role for this enzyme in the replication of dengue and Zika viruses in cultured mosquito cells. Finally, we show that the production of Zika virus in Wolbachia-free live mosquitoes is impaired by treatment with the selective inhibitor mimicking Wolbachia infection. This study identifies Wolbachia-mediated downregulation of insulin receptor kinase activity as a mechanism contributing to the blocking of super-infection by arboviruses.

A Tangled Web: Origins of Reproductive Parasitism.

While typically a flea parasite and opportunistic human pathogen, the presence of Rickettsia felis (strain LSU-Lb) in the non-blood-feeding, parthenogenetically reproducing booklouse, Liposcelis bostrychophila, provides a system to ascertain factors governing not only host transitions but also obligate reproductive parasitism (RP). Analysis of plasmid pLbAR, unique to R. felis str. LSU-Lb, revealed a toxin-antitoxin module with similar features to prophage-encoded toxin-antitoxin modules utilized by parasitic Wolbachia strains to induce another form of RP, cytoplasmic incompatibility, in their arthropod hosts. Curiously, multiple deubiquitinase and nuclease domains of the large (3,841 aa) pLbAR toxin, as well the entire antitoxin, facilitated the detection of an assortment of related proteins from diverse intracellular bacteria, including other reproductive parasites. Our description of these remarkable components of the intracellular mobilome, including their presence in certain arthropod genomes, lends insight on the evolution of RP, while invigorating research on parasite-mediated biocontrol of arthropod-borne viral and bacterial pathogens.

Stage-Specific Transcriptome and Proteome Analyses of the Filarial Parasite Onchocerca volvulus and Its Wolbachia Endosymbiont.

Onchocerciasis (river blindness) is a neglected tropical disease that has been successfully targeted by mass drug treatment programs in the Americas and small parts of Africa. Achieving the long-term goal of elimination of onchocerciasis, however, requires additional tools, including drugs, vaccines, and biomarkers of infection. Here, we describe the transcriptome and proteome profiles of the major vector and the human host stages (L1, L2, L3, molting L3, L4, adult male, and adult female) of Onchocerca volvulus along with the proteome of each parasitic stage and of its Wolbachia endosymbiont (wOv). In so doing, we have identified stage-specific pathways important to the parasite's adaptation to its human host during its early development. Further, we generated a protein array that, when screened with well-characterized human samples, identified novel diagnostic biomarkers of O. volvulus infection and new potential vaccine candidates. This immunomic approach not only demonstrates the power of this postgenomic discovery platform but also provides additional tools for onchocerciasis control programs. IMPORTANCE: The global onchocerciasis (river blindness) elimination program will have to rely on the development of new tools (drugs, vaccines, biomarkers) to achieve its goals by 2025. As an adjunct to the completed genomic sequencing of O. volvulus, we used a comprehensive proteomic and transcriptomic profiling strategy to gain a comprehensive understanding of both the vector-derived and human host-derived parasite stages. In so doing, we have identified proteins and pathways that enable novel drug targeting studies and the discovery of novel vaccine candidates, as well as useful biomarkers of active infection.

A histochemical study of the Nras/let-60 activity in filarial nematodes.

BACKGROUND: Control and elimination of filarial pathogens is a central focus of major global health efforts directed at parasitic diseases of developing countries. Accomplishment of these goals would be markedly enhanced by the enhanced destruction of the adult stage of filariae. The identification of new, more quantitative biomarkers that correlate with mortality or chemotherapeutic damage to adult filariae, would greatly facilitate, for example, the development of new macrofilaricides. METHODS: An immunocytochemical approach using an antibody against human Nras was used to identify and detect changes in the nematode homolog let-60 that is associated with cell growth and maintenance. Single Onchocerca volvulus nodules were removed from each of 13 patients treated with ivermectin (as part of a community-wide mass drug administration programme), and from each of 13 untreated individuals; these 26 nodules were stained with the anti-Nras antibody. The localization and degree of positivity of Nras/let-60 staining were assessed subjectively and compared between the two groups; the positivity of staining was also quantified, using image analysis, in a subgroup of these nodules. In addition, the specific morphological association between Nras/let-60 and the Wolbachia endosymbiont present in these parasites was also observed in 4 additional filarial species using an anti-Wolbachia surface protein (WSP) antibody under light and confocal microscopy. RESULTS: Nras/let-60 is present in many structures within the adult female worms. A statistically significant decrease in the general staining intensity of Nras/let-60 was observed in adult female O. volvulus treated with ivermectin when compared with parasites from untreated patients. Nras/let-60 staining was frequently observed to be co-localized with WSP in O.volvulus, Brugia malayi, Litomosoides sigmodontis and Dirofilaria immitis. Nras/let60 is also present in Onchocerca ochengi. CONCLUSION: Nras/let-60, as detected by immunocytochemical staining, is decreased in ivermectin-treated adult female O. volvulus relative to untreated control specimens, suggesting a suppressive effect of ivermectin on the overall biochemical activity of these parasites. Co-localization of Nras/let-60 and WSP suggests the possibility that the endosymbiont utilizes this nematode protein as part of a mutualistic relationship. Nras/let60 appears to be a useful biomarker for assessing the health of filariae.

Wolbachia lipoproteins: abundance, localisation and serology of Wolbachia peptidoglycan associated lipoprotein and the Type IV Secretion System component, VirB6 from Brugia malayi and Aedes albopictus.

BACKGROUND: Lipoproteins are the major agonists of Wolbachia-dependent inflammatory pathogenesis in filariasis and a validated target for drug discovery. Here we characterise the abundance, localisation and serology of the Wolbachia lipoproteins: Wolbachia peptidoglycan associated lipoprotein and the Type IV Secretion System component, VirB6. METHODS: We used proteomics to confirm lipoprotein presence and relative abundance; fractionation, immunoblotting and confocal and electron immuno-microscopy for localisation and ELISA for serological analysis. RESULTS: Proteomic analysis of Brugia malayi adult female protein extracts confirmed the presence of two lipoproteins, previously predicted through bioinformatics: Wolbachia peptidoglycan associated lipoprotein (wBmPAL) and the Type IV Secretion System component, VirB6 (wBmVirB6). wBmPAL was among the most abundant Wolbachia proteins present in an extract of adult female worms with wBmVirB6 only detected at a much lower abundance. This differential abundance was reflected in the immunogold-labelling, which showed wBmPAL localised at numerous sites within the bacterial membranes, whereas wBmVirB6 was present as a single cluster on each bacterial cell and also located within the bacterial membranes. Immunoblotting of fractionated extracts confirmed the localisation of wBmPAL to membranes and its absence from cytosolic fractions of C6/36 mosquito cells infected with wAlbB. In whole worm mounts, antibody labelling of both lipoproteins were associated with Wolbachia. Serological analysis showed that both proteins were immunogenic and raised antibody responses in the majority of individuals infected with Wuchereria bancrofti. CONCLUSIONS: Two Wolbachia lipoproteins, wBmPAL and wBmVirB6, are present in extracts of Brugia malayi with wBmPAL among the most abundant of Wolbachia proteins. Both lipoproteins localised to bacterial membranes with wBmVirB6 present as a single cluster suggesting a single Type IV Secretory System on each Wolbachia cell.

Detection of the Wolbachia-encoded DNA binding protein, HU beta, in mosquito gonads.

Wolbachia are obligate intracellular bacteria that cause cytoplasmic incompatibility in mosquitoes. In an incompatible cross, eggs of uninfected females fail to hatch when fertilized by sperm from infected males. We used polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and tandem mass spectrometry to identify Wolbachia proteins in infected mosquito gonads. These included surface proteins with masses of 25 and 18 kDa and the DNA binding protein, HU beta. Using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, we showed that the HU gene is transcribed in Wolbachia-infected Culex pipiens and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes. We sequenced HU genes from four Wolbachia strains and compared deduced protein sequences with additional homologs from the databases. Among the Rickettsiales, Wolbachia HU has distinct N- and C-terminal basic/acidic amino acid motifs as well as a pair of conserved, cysteine residues.

Recombinant Wolbachia heat shock protein 60 (HSP60) mediated immune responses in patients with lymphatic filariasis.

Wolbachia, an endosymbiont present in filarial nematodes, have been implicated in a variety of roles, including the worm development and survival. Elucidation of the role of Wolbachia in filarial nematode biology and pathogenesis has become the focus of many studies and its contribution to parasite survival or immune response is still unclear. Recombinant Wolbachia HSP60 decreases T cell activation and lymphoproliferation in filarial infected people compared to endemic controls as observed by the assessment of T cell activation markers and cytokine responses in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Reduced T cell activation may be linked to T regulatory cell activity since it is associated with increased expression of CTLA4 and CD25 on CD4(+) T cells in filarial infected group upon stimulation with recombinant Wolbachia HSP60. In addition, elevated interleukin-10 and TGF-ß cytokines corroborate the reduced CD4(+) T cell activation and interferon-γ observed upon recombinant Wolbachia HSP60 stimulation in filarial patients. Hence, these findings indicate that Wolbachia HSP60 may also contribute to the immune modulation seen in filarial patients.

Regulation of Wolbachia ankyrin domain encoding genes in Drosophila gonads.

The maternally inherited obligatory intracellular bacterium Wolbachia is a reproductive parasite of many insect species. Wolbachia evades the host immune system, uses the mitotic apparatus to ensure infection of daughter cells, migrates through the host to the gonads and causes reproductive phenotypes, most commonly cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), i.e. incompatibility of sperm from infected males and eggs from uninfected females. Due to the interconnected facts that Wolbachia is not ex vivo culturable and that no established transformation system exists, virtually nothing is known about Wolbachia-host interactions at the macromolecular level. Intriguingly, the Wolbachia genome codes for an unusually high number of ankyrin repeat (ANK) proteins. ANKs mediate protein-protein interactions in many different contexts. More common in eukaryotes, they also occur in prokaryotes. Some intracellular pathogenic bacteria export ANK effector proteins to the host cytoplasm. This makes the Wolbachia ANK genes candidates for mediating interactions with host cells. We quantified expression of ANK genes of Wolbachia strain wMel in adult gonads and detected host sex-specific regulation of two wMel ANK genes in the gonads in two different backgrounds. Regulation was tissue-specific and independent of host background. We further analyzed expression of their homologues in strains wAu and wRi and found regulation only in wAu. Regulation was tissue-specific and there was no correlation between regulation of these genes and the ability of a strain to induce CI.

Antibiotic treatment leads to the elimination of Wolbachia endosymbionts and sterility in the diplodiploid collembolan Folsomia candida.

BACKGROUND: Wolbachia is an extremely widespread bacterial endosymbiont of arthropods and nematodes that causes a variety of reproductive peculiarities. Parthenogenesis is one such peculiarity but it has been hypothesised that this phenomenon may be functionally restricted to organisms that employ haplodiploid sex determination. Using two antibiotics, tetracycline and rifampicin, we attempted to eliminate Wolbachia from the diplodiploid host Folsomia candida, a species of springtail which is a widely used study organism. RESULTS: Molecular assays confirmed that elimination of Wolbachia was successfully achieved through continuous exposure of populations (over two generations and several weeks) to rifampicin administered as 2.7% dry weight of their yeast food source. The consequence of this elimination was total sterility of all individuals, despite the continuation of normal egg production. CONCLUSION: Microbial endosymbionts play an obligatory role in the reproduction of their diplodiploid host, most likely one in which the parthenogenetic process is facilitated by Wolbachia. A hitherto unknown level of host-parasite interdependence is thus recorded.

Crystallization and preliminary diffraction analysis of a DsbA homologue from Wolbachia pipientis.

alpha-DsbA1 is one of two DsbA homologues encoded by the Gram-negative alpha-proteobacterium Wolbachia pipientis, an endosymbiont that can behave as a reproductive parasite in insects and as a mutualist in medically important filarial nematodes. The alpha-DsbA1 protein is thought to be important for the folding and secretion of Wolbachia proteins involved in the induction of reproductive distortions. Crystals of native and SeMet alpha-DsbA1 were grown by vapour diffusion and belong to the monoclinic space group C2, with unit-cell parameters a = 71.4, b = 49.5, c = 69.3 A, beta = 107.0 degrees and one molecule in the asymmetric unit (44% solvent content). X-ray data were recorded from native crystals to a resolution of 2.01 A using a copper anode and data from SeMet alpha-DsbA1 crystals were recorded to 2.45 A resolution using a chromium anode.

Sequencing and analysis of a 63 kb bacterial artificial chromosome insert from the Wolbachia endosymbiont of the human filarial parasite Brugia malayi.

Wolbachia endosymbiotic bacteria are widespread in filarial nematodes and are directly involved in the immune response of the host. In addition, antibiotics which disrupt Wolbachia interfere with filarial nematode development thus, Wolbachia provide an excellent target for control of filariasis. A 63.1 kb bacterial artificial chromosome insert, from the Wolbachia endosymbiont of the human filarial parasite Brugia malayi, has been sequenced using the New England Biolabs Inc. Genome Priming System() transposition kit in conjunction with primer walking methods. The bacterial artificial chromosome insert contains approximately 57 potential ORFs which have been compared by individual protein BLAST analysis with the 35 published complete microbial genomes in the Comprehensive Microbial Resource database at The Institute for Genomic Research and in the NCBI GenBank database, as well as to data from 22 incomplete genomes from the DOE Joint Genome Institute. Twenty five of the putative ORFs have significant similarity to genes from the alpha-proteobacteria Rickettsia prowazekii, the most closely related completed genome, as well as to the newly sequenced alpha-proteobacteria endosymbiont Sinorhizobium meliloti. The bacterial artificial chromosome insert sequence however has little conserved synteny with the R. prowazekii and S. meliloti genomes. Significant sequence similarity was also found in comparisons with the currently available sequence data from the Wolbachia endosymbiont of Drosophila melanogaster. Analysis of this bacterial artificial chromosome insert provides useful gene density and comparative genomic data that will contribute to whole genome sequencing of Wolbachia from the B. malayi host. This will also lead to a better understanding of the interactions between the endosymbiont and its host and will offer novel approaches and drug targets for elimination of filarial disease.

Do Wolbachia infections play a role in unidirectional incompatibilities in a field cricket hybrid zone?

Two closely related field crickets, Gryllus firmus and G. pennsylvanicus, hybridize along an extensive north-south zone in the eastern United States. Crosses between G. firmus males and G. pennsylvanicus females produce viable and fertile F1, but the reciprocal cross consistently fails to produce offspring. Wolbachia, a bacterial parasite of arthropods that causes unidirectional incompatibilities in a variety of insect species, has been suggested as the cause of the observed incompatibility between G. pennsylvanicus and G. firmus. We examine the presence/absence of Wolbachia strains, defined by sequencing the ftsZ gene, in four cricket populations from the north-eastern United States. Most G. firmus individuals are infected (100% in Guilford, Connecticut; 65% in Seaside Park, New Jersey) and > 95% of those infected harbour a single strain of Wolbachia. All individuals in G. pennsylvanicus populations (Ithaca, New York; Sharon, Connecticut) are infected; the majority of individuals carry a second strain of Wolbachia, but a significant fraction carry the same strain found commonly in G. firmus. The presence of an apparently identical Wolbachia strain in crickets of both species means that some crosses between G. pennsylvanicus males and G. firmus females should be compatible. We have no evidence of such compatibility. Furthermore, if Wolbachia infections are responsible for the observed incompatibility between species, then incompatibilities must also exist within G. pennsylvanicus, because this species harbours both Wolbachia strains. Although some single pair crosses within G. pennsylvanicus do fail to produce offspring, the proportion is lower than expected if Wolbachia were responsible. Therefore, Wolbachia is unlikely to be involved in reproductive isolation between the two cricket species.

wsp gene sequences from the Wolbachia of filarial nematodes.

Wolbachia endosymbiotic bacteria are widespread in arthropods and are also present in filarial nematodes. Almost all filarial species so far examined have been found to harbor these endosymbionts. The sequences of only three genes have been published for nematode Wolbachia (i.e., the genes coding for the proteins FtsZ and catalase and for 16S rRNA). Here we present the sequences of the genes coding for the Wolbachia surface protein (WSP) from the endosymbionts of eight species of filaria. Complete gene sequences were obtained from the endosymbionts of two different species, Dirofilaria immitis and Brugia malayi. These sequences allowed us to design general primers for amplification of the wsp gene from the Wolbachia of all filarial species examined. For these species, partial WSP sequences (about 600 base pairs) were obtained with these primers. Phylogenetic analysis groups these nematode wsp sequences into a coherent cluster. Within the nematode cluster, wsp-based Wolbachia phylogeny matches a previous phylogeny obtained with ftsZ gene sequences, with a good consistency of the phylogeny of hosts (nematodes) and symbionts (Wolbachia). In addition, different individuals of the same host species (Dirofilaria immitis and Wuchereria bancrofti) show identical wsp gene sequences.