Fabrication and characterization of the W/O/W multiple emulsion through oleogelation of oil.

W/O/W emulsions were easily prepared by oleogelation of the oil phase using rice bran wax (RBX) and their microstructure, stability, rheology and protection of proanthocyanidins and ß-carotene were investigated. Formation of the W/O/W emulsion was confirmed using confocal laser scanning microscopy and staining of the inner aqueous phase by tartrazine. The average particle size and viscosity of the emulsion increased as the RBX concentration increased. Moreover, RBX increased the stability of the emulsion and the emulsion was the most stable when the RBX concentration was 8.0% or 10.0%. On the other hand, the W/O/W emulsions were used to simultaneously encapsulate proanthocyanidins and ß-carotene. Specifically, proanthocyanidins and ß-carotene in RBX-containing emulsions were more stable and had higher bioaccessibility than in the emulsion without RBX. Besides, both their chemical stability and bioaccessibility reached the maximum value when the RBX concentration was 8.0% or 10.0%. In summary, the optimal RBX concentration was 8.0%.

Development of ß-carotene loaded oil-in-water emulsions using mixed biopolymer-particle-surfactant interfaces.

In this study, ß-carotene loaded oil-in-water emulsions were stabilized by complex interfaces composed of propylene glycol alginate (PGA), rhamnolipids (Rha), and zein colloidal particles (ZCPs). The influence of mixed biopolymer-surfactant, biopolymer-particle, surfactant-particle and biopolymer-surfactant-particle interfaces on the performance of the emulsions was investigated. The stability, microstructure, rheological properties, and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of the emulsions were controlled by regulating the adding sequence and mass ratio of the multiple stabilizers. The droplet size of the emulsion was in the range of 14-77 µm. After encapsulation into the emulsions stabilized by the complex interfaces, the photothermal stability of ß-carotene were increased by 41.53% and 21.52%, respectively. The co-existence of particles, biopolymers, and surfactants could induce competitive displacement, multilayer deposition and an interparticle network at the interface. Compared with a single PGA- or Rha-stabilized emulsion, the complex interface-stabilized emulsion reduced the release of FFA by 28.06% and 26.16%, respectively. The interfacial composition of the emulsion and the delayed lipid digestion further affected the bioaccessibility of ß-carotene in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The mixed biopolymer-particle-surfactant interface-stabilized emulsion could be incorporated in foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics for excellent stability, targeted nutrient delivery and controlled lipolysis.

Starch digestibility and ß-carotene bioaccessibility in the orange- fleshed sweet potato puree-wheat bread.

Vitamin A is essential for vision, human health, growth, immune function, and reproduction. Its deficiency leads to anemia, xerophthalmia, and growth reduction in children. Foods enriched with naturally occurring carotenes have the potential, in this regard, and orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) stands out tall as it is rich in ß-carotene (ßC), a provitamin A carotenoid. In view of developing OFSP-based functional foods to address the vitamin A deficiency (VAD) issues, herein, OFSP puree-wheat composite breads have been prepared at 10% to 50% OFSP puree concentrations and bioaccessibility of ßC has been estimated. The total ßC is found to be 4.3, 9.2, 16.5, 23.3, and 33.6 µg/g in 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% OFSP bread, respectively. The corresponding calculated retinol activity equivalents (RAE) are 30.9, 66.4, 119.5, 170.4, and 246.2 RAE/100 g. The efficiency of micellarization of all-trans-ßC, 13-cis ßC, and 9-cis ßC after simulated oral, gastric, and small intestinal digestion are 1.4% to 6.4%, 1.4% to 7.2%, and 1.1% to 6.9%, respectively. The amount of micellarized ßC correlates linearly with the OFSP concentration in the bread. Furthermore, in vitro starch digestion decreases with significant reduction in the Rapidly Digestible Starch (RDS) amount coupled with increase in the Slowly Digestible Starch (SDS) and Resistant Starch (RS) fractions. Overall, OFSP-wheat composite bread holds adequate amount of provitamin A carotenoids. The amount of bioaccessible ßC coupled with altered starch digestion of the OFSP wheat breads highlight their usefulness as novel functional foods that could address the VAD as well as glycemic issues toward improving human health.

Interactions of ß-carotene with WPI/Tween 80 mixture and oil phase: Effect on the behavior of O/W emulsions during in vitro digestion.

This study investigated the impact of adding ß-carotene on the structure of fresh O/W emulsions with different oil phase (sunflower oil-LCT or NEOBEE®1053-MCT) and emulsifiers (WPI, Tween 80 - T80 or WPI/T80 mixture). In this sense, the behavior of emulsions through the gastrointestinal tract, the stability and bioaccessibility of ß-carotene were also assessed. The ß-carotene reduced the interfacial tension of the LCT/MCT-water systems. The addition of ß-carotene promoted an increase of viscoelasticity of LCT/MCT-T80 (0.5%WPI/0.5%T80 and 1%T80 w/w) interfaces, but an increase of WPI content reduced the viscoelasticity of interfacial layers (LCT/MCT-1% WPI). These changes in the interface properties influenced the mean droplet size and ζ-potential of the fresh emulsions. LCT systems presented similar bioaccessibility/stability of ß-carotene. However, ß-carotene entrapped within protein-coated MCT droplets was more stable than within T80-MCT systems. Our results show that ß-carotene interacted with other ingredients of emulsions changing their properties and behavior under gastrointestinal tract as well as the stability/bioaccessibility of ß-carotene.

Emulsifying properties of a ferulic acid-grafted curdlan conjugate and its contribution to the chemical stability of ß-carotene.

A biopolymer-polyphenol conjugate-stabilized oil-in-water emulsion system was established to improve the chemical stability and bioaccessibility of ß-carotene (BC). In this study, the emulsifying properties and contribution of a ferulic acid-grafted curdlan conjugate (Cur-D-g-FA) to the chemical stability of BC were investigated. Results showed that the emulsification ability of emulsions stabilized by Cur-D-g-FA remarkably increased with an increasing concentration from 0.05% to 0.8% (w/v) along with decreasing average droplet sizes, negatively charged zeta potentials, and uniform size distributions. The emulsions stabilized by 0.8% Cur-D-g-FA exhibited pronounced shear thinning and solid-like elastic properties as well as satisfactory oxidation stability. The emulsions stabilized by 0.8% Cur-D-g-FA had excellent ability to improve the chemical stability of BC when exposed to different environmental stresses and resulted in the favorable bioaccessibility of BC in vitro. The results prove that Cur-D-g-FA as a promising stabilizer has great potential to protect liposoluble nutrients in food-grade emulsion-delivery systems.

A Compartmental Model Describing the Kinetics of ß-Carotene and ß-Carotene-Derived Retinol in Healthy Older Adults.

BACKGROUND: Descriptive and quantitative information on ß-carotene whole-body kinetics in humans is limited. OBJECTIVES: Our objective was to advance the development of a physiologically based, working hypothesis compartmental model describing the metabolism of ß-carotene and ß-carotene-derived retinol. METHODS: We used model-based compartmental analysis (Simulation, Analysis and Modeling software) to analyze previously published data on plasma kinetics of [2H8]ß-carotene, [2H4]ß-carotene-derived retinol, and [2H8]retinyl acetate-derived retinol in healthy, older US adults (3 female, 2 male; 50-68 y); subjects were studied for 56 d after consuming doses of 11 µmol [2H8]ß-carotene and, 3 d later, 9 µmol [2H8]retinyl acetate in oil. RESULTS: We developed a complex model for labeled ß-carotene and ß-carotene-derived retinol, as well as preformed vitamin A, using simulations to augment observed data during model calibration. The model predicts that mean (range) ß-carotene absorption (bioavailability) was 9.5% (5.2-14%) and bioefficacy was 7.3% (3.6-14%). Of the absorbed ß-carotene, 41% (25-58%) was packaged intact in chylomicrons and the balance was converted to retinol, with 58% (42-75%) transported as retinyl esters in chylomicrons and 0-2% by retinol-binding protein. Most (95%) chylomicron ß-carotene was cleared by the liver. Later data revealed differences in the metabolism of retinyl acetate- versus ß-carotene-derived retinol; data required that both ß-carotene and derived retinol be recycled from extrahepatic tissues (e.g. adipose) in HDL. Of total bioconversion [73% (47-99%)], 82% occurred in the intestine, 17% in the liver, and 0.83% in other tissues. CONCLUSIONS: Our model advances knowledge about whole-body ß-carotene metabolism in healthy adults, including the kinetics of transport in all lipoprotein species, and suggests hypotheses to be tested in future studies, such as the possibility that retinol derived from hepatic conversion over a long period of time might contribute to plasma retinol homeostasis and total body vitamin A stores.

Role of antioxidants on physicochemical properties and in vitro bioaccessibility of ß-carotene loaded nanoemulsion under thermal and cold plasma discharge accelerated tests.

The effects of water soluble antioxidant (ascorbic acid and EDTA), fat soluble antioxidant (α-tocopherol) and amphiphilic antioxidant (ascorbyl palmitate; AP) on the chemical physics and bioaccessibility of ß-carotene loaded nanoemulsions (CNE) were investigated. During accelerated storage at 45 °C for 15 days, AP showed the highest protective actions against particle size growth, color fading, lipid oxidation, and ß-carotene degradation in CNE (p < 0.05). CNE with AP was then subjected to treat with cold plasma (CP) induced reactive species system under various powers and contact times compared to control. AP was able to protect physical and oxidative stabilities of CNE as well as ß-carotene integrity. The highest in vitro lipid digestibility, bioaccessibility and ß-carotene stability were found in CNE with AP (p < 0.05). However, those properties were lowered after CP exposure. The results indicated that AP was a promising antioxidant in improving physical stability, oxidative stability, ß-carotene retention, and ß-carotene bioaccessibility of CNE.

ß-Carotene: Preventive Role for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Obesity: A Review.

Carotenoids are vital antioxidants for plants and animals. They protect cells from oxidative events and act against the inflammatory process and carcinogenesis. Among the most abundant carotenoids in human and foods is ß-carotene. This carotenoid has the highest level of provitamin A activity, as it splits into two molecules of retinol through the actions of the cytosolic enzymes: ß-carotene-15,15'-monooxygenase (ß-carotene-15,15'-oxygenase 1) and ß-carotene-9',10'-dioxygenase (ß-carotene-9',10'-oxygenase 2). The literature supports the idea that ß-carotene acts against type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Due to the many processes involved in ß-carotene biosynthesis and metabolic function, little is known about such components, since many mechanisms have not yet been fully elucidated. Therefore, our study concisely described the relationships between the consumption of carotenoids, with emphasis on ß-carotene, and obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus and its associated parameters in order to understand the preventive role of carotenoids better and encourage their consumption.

Dietary ß-Cryptoxanthin and α-Carotene Have Greater Apparent Bioavailability Than ß-Carotene in Subjects from Countries with Different Dietary Patterns.

ß-carotene, α-carotene and ß-cryptoxanthin are greater contributors to vitamin A intake than retinol in the human diet for most people around the world. Their contribution depends on several factors, including bioavailability and capacity of conversion into retinol. There is an increasing body of research showing that the use of retinol activity equivalents or retinol equivalents could lead to the underestimation of the contribution of ß-cryptoxanthin and of α-carotene. The aim is to assess their apparent bioavailability by comparing concentrations in blood to their dietary intakes and identifying the major food contributors to their dietary intake. Dietary intake (3-day 24-h records) and serum concentrations (by HPLC) were calculated in normolipemic subjects with adequate retinol status (≥1.1 µmol/L) from our studies (n = 633) and apparent bioavailability calculated from 22 other studies (n = 29,700). Apparent bioavailability was calculated as the ratio of concentration in the blood to carotenoid intake. Apparent bioavailabilities for α-carotene and ß-cryptoxanthin were compared to those for ß-carotene. Eating comparable amounts of α-carotene, ß-cryptoxanthin and ß-carotene foods resulted in 55% greater α-carotene (95% CI 35, 90) and 686% higher ß-cryptoxanthin (95% CI 556, 1016) concentrations than ß-carotene in blood. This suggests differences in the apparent bioavailability of α-carotene and ß-cryptoxanthin and even larger differences with ß-cryptoxanthin, greater than that of ß-carotene. Four fruits (tomato, orange, tangerine, red pepper) and two vegetables (carrot, spinach) are the main contributors to their dietary intake (>50%) in Europeans.

Effect of dispersed form on the bioavailability of ß-carotene from daily intake in humans.

In a randomized double-blind crossover study, a canned beverage was prepared using an emulsion dispersion formulation (EM) of ß-carotene and a crystal dispersion formulation (CR) of ß-carotene; the beverages were ingested by human subjects daily for 2 weeks to compare the ß-carotene bioavailability. EM-ß-carotene enhanced the ß-carotene concentrations in human plasma approximately 4-fold, but CR-ß-carotene showed no statistically significant enhancement. Bioaccessibility is the ratio of the solubilized fraction to the whole amount ingested. Bioaccessibility of ß-carotene from EM-ß-carotene was higher than that from CR-ß-carotene in an in vitro digestion test. Contrarily, ß-carotene from CR-ß-carotene, consists of all-trans-ß-carotene, was higher than that from EM-ß-carotene, consists of a mixture of cis and all-trans-ß-carotene, on the uptake by intestinal Caco-2 cells, suggesting that bioaccessibility was a critical factor in ß-carotene bioavailability in this study. EM-ß-carotene thus has potential as a food coloring agent with value added because it enhances ß-carotene bioavailability.

Factors impacting lipid digestion and ß-carotene bioaccessibility assessed by standardized gastrointestinal model (INFOGEST): oil droplet concentration.

Food, nutrition, and pharmaceutical scientists are trying to elucidate the major factors impacting the bioavailability of macronutrients (e.g., lipids) and micronutrients (e.g., vitamins) so as to improve their efficacy. Currently, there is still a limited understanding of how food matrix effects impact digestion and bioaccessibility determined under the INFOGEST model, which is currently the most widely used standardized in vitro gastrointestinal model. Therefore, we examined the impact of corn oil concentration on lipid digestion and ß-carotene bioaccessibility using model food emulsions. For all oil concentrations tested (2.5 to 20%), complete lipid digestion was achieved using fed-state gastrointestinal conditions, which could only be seen if a back-titration was performed. The particle size and negative surface potential on the mixed micelles formed at the end of the small intestine phase both increased with increasing oil concentration, which was attributed to the generation of more free fatty acids. The ß-carotene bioaccessibility increased when the oil concentration was raised from 2.5 to 10% due to the increased solubilization capacity of the mixed micelles, but then it decreased when the oil concentration was raised further to 20% due to precipitation and sedimentation of some of the ß-carotene. The maximum ß-carotene bioaccessibility (93.2%) was measured at 10% oil. These results indicate that the oil concentration of emulsions influences ß-carotene bioaccessibility by altering digestion, solubilization, and precipitation processes. This knowledge is important when designing more effective functional or medical food products.

Improved Bioavailability of ß-Carotene by Amorphous Solid Dispersion Technology in Rats.

ß-Carotene (BC) is a natural lipophilic carotenoid mainly present in vegetables and fruits. Although it has various beneficial pharmacological activities, its bioavailability is low owing to its low water solubility. Recently, we reported that BC solid dispersion prepared using hot-melt technology with polyvinylpyrrolidone and sucrose fatty acid esters was in an amorphous state and showed the highest solubility. We hypothesized that the absorption of BC solid dispersion would be better because of its increased water solubility. To verify this, we conducted a pharmacokinetic analysis of BC for application in functional foods. Crystalline or amorphous BC was orally administered to rats. Blood was collected at various time points, and the BC concentration in the plasma was measured by HPLC. Oral administration of amorphous BC showed increased absorption in rats compared with that of BC crystals. Using blood samples from rats that were intravenously injected with the plasma of rats that had been orally administered BC, pharmacokinetic parameters could be calculated without using organic solvents or surfactants. It was possible to calculate various pharmacokinetic parameters under physiological conditions according to amorphous BC characteristics. Thus, we were able to determine the bioavailability of BC after oral administration. This simple technology to improve BC solubility without the use of organic solvents can be applied not only in the pharmaceutical industry but also in the food industry, and it therefore has high utility value.

Micro- and nano-encapsulation of ß-carotene in zein protein: size-dependent release and absorption behavior.

ß-Carotene is a lipophilic bioactive compound, providing significant health benefits. Formulation of ß-carotene-enriched functional foods is a challenge, due to its poor stability, sensitivity towards light, temperature, oxygen, and its poor water solubility which leads to low bioaccessibility and bioavailability. Targeted delivery and controlled release of bioactive compounds directly depend on the encapsulating matrix and particle size. This work reports an effective encapsulation of ß-carotene in zein matrix with glycerol as stabilizing agent. ß-Carotene was encapsulated in zein protein matrix with different core-to-wall ratios (1 : 10, 1 : 50 and 1 : 100) at micro- and nano-level, through spray drying and electrospraying techniques, respectively. A comparative evaluation of processing technique, resulting particle size and its impact on powder flow properties, dissolution, release and absorption behaviour was conducted. Results showed that up to 81% of encapsulation efficiency was achieved for the nanoencapsulated form obtained through the electrospraying technique. Nanoencapsulates showed excellent dissolution behaviour compared to microencapsulates due to reduced particle size and larger surface area. Further, under simulated in vitro gastrointestinal conditions, nanoencapsulates showed faster release than microparticles. Among the three ratios tested, nanoencapsulates at 1 : 50 were found to be optimal with ∼73% encapsulation efficiency, exhibiting faster release giving more bioaccessibility, with 1.29- and 1.36-fold higher permeability than 1 : 10 and 1 : 100 formulations, respectively. Additionally, the 1 : 50 nanoencapsulates gave ∼1.7-fold increased permeability compared to microparticles at the end of 3 h using an ex vivo everted gut sac technique. This study proves the potential of zein nanoparticles for enhanced permeability and bioavailability of ß-carotene.

Fabrication of high internal phase Pickering emulsions with calcium-crosslinked whey protein nanoparticles for ß-carotene stabilization and delivery.

Whey protein isolate (WPI) nanoparticles were fabricated with Ca2+ induced cross-linking and used as an effective particle stabilizer for high internal phase Pickering emulsion (HIPPE) formulation aiming to improve the chemical stability and bioaccessibility of ß-carotene (BC). Ca2+ concentration dominated the characteristics of WPI nanoparticles. Spherically shaped and homogeneously dispersed WPI nanoparticles with a Z-average diameter of approximately 150.0 nm were obtained with 5.0 mM Ca2+ concentration. No cytotoxicity was observed for WPI nanoparticles even at 10.0 mg mL-1 concentration. HIPPE (oil fraction 80.0%, w/w) can be successfully prepared with WPI nanoparticles at a concentration as low as 0.2% (w/w) and was stable for at least 2 months at room temperature. A higher WPI nanoparticle concentration resulted in more solid-like HIPPEs. BC exhibited appreciably higher retention in HIPPEs than in bulk oil during 30 days of storage at 50 °C. Moreover, BC bioaccessibility was appreciably improved with the HIPPE delivery system. Both the chemical stability and bioaccessibility of BC increased with the increase of WPI nanoparticle concentrations from 0.2 to 1.0% (w/w). The results obtained in this study may facilitate the fabrication of edible and biocompatible protein-based nanoparticle stabilizers for HIPPE formulation with more innovative and tailored functionalities.

The lipid type affects the in vitro digestibility and ß-carotene bioaccessibility of liquid or solid lipid nanoparticles.

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are emulsion-based carriers of lipophilic bioactive compounds. However, their digestibility may be affected by the solid lipid phase composition. Hence, the aim of this work was to study the in vitro lipolysis kinetics as well as the relationship between the lipid digestion, micelle fraction composition and ß-carotene bioaccessibility of SLNs with different solid lipids, being blends of medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil, glyceryl stearate (GS) or hydrogenated palm oil (HPO) as compared to liquid lipid nanoparticles (LLNs) with pure MCT. SLNs formulated with GS were fully digested, similarly to LLNs. However, HPO-containing SLNs presented slower lipolysis kinetics during the intestinal phase at increasing HPO concentration. Despite this, HPO-SLNs showed higher ß-carotene bioaccessibility, which was related to the higher amount of monounstaturated free fatty acids in the micelle fraction. Thus, this work provides valuable insight for designing delivery systems of bioactive compounds with optimal functionality.

Bioaccessibility and stability of ß-carotene encapsulated in plant-based emulsions: impact of emulsifier type and tannic acid.

The effect of two plant-based emulsifiers (quillaja saponin, QS and gum arabic, GA) and a polyphenol (tannic acid) on the formation, stability, digestibility, and ß-carotene (BC) bioaccessibility of flaxseed oil-in-water emulsions was investigated. The gastrointestinal behavior of the emulsions was studied using a simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT) consisting of mouth, stomach, and small intestine regions. In the absence of tannic acid, the initial extent of lipid digestion depended strongly on emulsifier type, with 45% and 76% of the free fatty acids being released after 5 min digestion for QS- and GA-emulsions, respectively. Even so, the lipid droplets were completely digested in both emulsions after 2 h incubation in the small intestine phase. Tannic acid addition (0.01% and 0.1% w/w) slowed down lipid digestion, but did not impact the final extent. The droplets in the QS-emulsions containing 0.1% tannic acid were highly flocculated in the stomach phase. Molecular docking simulations indicated that the interactions between tannic acid and the saponins were mainly driven by hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. Moreover, they showed that the interactions between tannic acid and QS were stronger at pH 2.5 than at pH 7.0, which would account for the extensive droplet flocculation observed under acidic conditions in the stomach. Emulsifier type and tannic acid addition had no significant influence on BC bioaccessibility. The GA-emulsions exhibited better stability than the QS-emulsions when stored at elevated temperatures (55 °C for 7 days). Tannic acid addition effectively inhibited temperature-induced BC degradation. These results may facilitate the design of more efficacious nutraceutical-loaded functional foods and beverages.

Fabrication, structure, and function evaluation of the ferritin based nano-carrier for food bioactive compounds.

The low solubility, instability, and low bioavailability of food bioactive compounds such as polyphenols and flavonoids, restrict their applications in the fields of food science and nutrition. Ferritin protein has received more and more attention in encapsulation and delivery of the bioactive compounds due to its nanosized shell-like structure and its reversible self-assembly character. After encapsulation, bioactive compounds can be functionalized by the ferritin vehicle to achieve stabilization, solubilization, and targeted delivery. In addition, the outer interfaces and the porous structure of ferritin are also artfully harnessed for encapsulation. This review focuses on the newest advances in the fabrication, characterization, and application of ferritin-based nano-carriers for bioactive compounds by the reversible self-assembly, outer-interface decoration methods, and the channel-directed approach. The functional improvements of food bioactive compounds, including their solubility, stability, and cellular uptake, are emphasized. The limitations that affect ferritin encapsulation are also examined.

Comparison of the bioavailability and intestinal absorption sites of phytoene, phytofluene, lycopene and ß-carotene.

The mechanisms of main tomato carotenes (phytoene, phytofluene, lycopene and ß-carotene) intestinal absorption are still only partly understood. We thus compared carotene bioavailability in mice after gavage with carotene-rich oil-in-water emulsions. We also determined each carotene absorption profile along the duodenal-ileal axis of the intestine to identify their respective absorption sites and compared these profiles with the gene expression sites of their identified transporters, i.e. SR-BI and CD36. Our data show that phytofluene presented a significantly higher bioavailability compared to lycopene and ß-carotene (areas under the curve of 0.76 ±â€¯0.09 vs. 0.30 ±â€¯0.05, 0.09 ±â€¯0.05 and 0.08 ±â€¯0.01 µmol/L·h for phytofluene, phytoene, lycopene and ß-carotene, respectively). ß-Carotene was mostly converted in the proximal and median intestine. Phytoene and phytofluene accumulation tended to be more important in the distal intestine, which did not correlate with the proximal expression of both Scarb1 and CD36. Overall, these results highlight the high bioavailability of phytofluene.

Acute Effect of a Single Dose of Tomato Sofrito on Plasmatic Inflammatory Biomarkers in Healthy Men.

Sofrito is a Mediterranean tomato-based sauce that typically also contains olive oil, onion, and garlic. The preparation of sofrito modifies the bioactive compounds (carotenoids and polyphenols) in the ingredients to more bioavailable forms, promoting cis-lycopene formation and polyphenol bioaccessibility. To evaluate the health benefits of this cooking technique, the effect of consuming an acute dose of sofrito on the inflammatory status was studied. In a clinical trial, 22 healthy male subjects consumed a single dose of sofrito (240 g/70 kg) after three days without ingesting any tomato products and following a low-antioxidant diet the day before the intervention. Plasma carotenoids and total polyphenol excretion (TPE) were evaluated, as well as the inflammatory biomarkers C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). After the sofrito intake, a significant decrease in CRP (p = 0.010) and TNF-α (p = 0.011) was observed, but only TNF-α was inversely correlated with an increase in TPE and plasma ß-carotene (not the major carotenoid, lycopene). The positive health effects of this tomato-based product may be attributed not only to lycopene, but to the bioactive compounds of all the ingredients.

Effects on intestinal cellular bioaccessibility of carotenoids and cellular biological activity as a consequence of co-ingestion of anthocyanin- and carotenoid-rich vegetables.

The effects of co-digestion of a carotenoid-rich vegetable such as carrot, cherry tomato or baby spinach with an anthocyanin-rich vegetable such as red cabbage with and without salad dressing on the intestinal cellular bioaccessibility (cBAC) of carotenoids and the resultant cellular antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities were investigated. The % cBAC of lutein from the tested vegetables was 0.23-1.42%, lycopene 0.07-0.39%, α-carotene 0.01-0.12% and ß-carotene 0.03-0.61% respectively. The % cBAC of each of these carotenoids from the co-digested vegetables was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than from carrot, cherry tomato or baby spinach digested alone. % cBAC of total carotenoids was significantly increased by 46-191% (p < 0.05) as a result of the co-digestion. The vegetable co-digestion did not result in any impairment on the resultant cellular anti-oxidation and anti-inflammation (NO, IL-8 secretion). Among the tested vegetables, baby spinach co-digested with red cabbage showed synergistic bioactivities in all tested assays.