The development of a road safety policy index and its application in evaluating the effects of road safety policy.

The paper presents an exploratory study of a road safety policy index developed for Norway. The index consists of ten road safety measures for which data on their use from 1980 to 2021 are available. The ten measures were combined into an index which had an initial value of 50 in 1980 and increased to a value of 185 in 2021. To assess the application of the index in evaluating the effects of road safety policy, negative binomial regression models and multivariate time series models were developed for traffic fatalities, fatalities and serious injuries, and all injuries. The coefficient for the policy index was negative, indicating the road safety policy has contributed to reducing the number of fatalities and injuries. The size of this contribution can be estimated by means of at least three estimators that do not always produce identical values. There is little doubt about the sign of the relationship: a stronger road safety policy (as indicated by index values) is associated with a larger decline in fatalities and injuries. A precise quantification is, however, not possible. Different estimators of effect, all of which can be regarded as plausible, yield different results.

Analysis of road traffic accidents and casualties associated with electric bikes and bicycles in Guangzhou, China: A retrospective descriptive analysis.

Introduction: Electric bicycles (e-bikes) and bicycles in large Chinese cities have recently witnessed substantial growth in ridership. According to related accident trends, this study analyzed characteristics and spatial distribution in the period when e-bike-related accidents rapidly increased to propose priority measures to reduce accident casualties. Methods: For e-bike- and bicycle-related accident data from the Guangzhou Public Security Traffic Management Integrated System, linear regression was used to examine the trends in the number of accidents and age-adjusted road traffic casualties from 2011 to 2021. Then, for the period when e-bike-related accidents rapidly increased, descriptive statistics were computed regarding rider characteristics, illegal behaviors, road types, collision objects and their accident liability. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Bonferroni's multiple comparison test. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Finally, the density distribution of accidents was presented, and Moran's I (MI) was used for assessing spatial autocorrelation. Hotspots were identified based on an optimized hotspot analysis tool. Results: Between 2011 and 2021, the number of accidents and casualty rate (per 100,000 population) increased for e-bikes but decreased for bicycles. After 2018, e-bike-related accidents increased rapidly, and bicycle-related accidents plateaued. Accident hotspots were concentrated in central city areas and suburban areas close to the former. Three-quarters of accidents occurred in motorized vehicle lanes. Most occurred on roads without physically segregated nonmotorized vehicle lanes. More than three-fifths of the accidents involved motor vehicles with at least four wheels. The prevalence (per 100 people) of casualties among e-bike rider victims and cyclist victims accounted for 92.0 % and 96.5 %, respectively. A total of 71.6 % of e-bike-related accidents involved migrant workers. Riding in motorized vehicle lanes was the most common illegal behavior. Conclusions: Although e-bike-related and bicycle-related accidents presented similar characteristics, the sharp increase in e-bike-related accidents requires attention. To improve e-bike safety, governments should develop appropriate countermeasures to prevent riders from riding on motorways, such as improving road infrastructure, adjusting the driver's license system and addressing priority control areas.

Statistical estimation of fatal and serious injuries saved by iRAP protocols in 74 countries.

OBJECTIVE: Road traffic crashes cause 1.19 million deaths and millions more injuries annually. The persistently high burden has drawn attention from national and international stakeholders worldwide. Unsafe road infrastructure is one of the major risk factors for traffic safety, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. METHODS: Aiming to eliminate high-risk roads in all countries, the International Road Assessment Programme (iRAP) developed a robust and evidence-based approach to support country transportation agencies. RESULTS: Thus far, the iRAP protocols have been used to collect 1.8 million kilometers of Crash Risk Mapping and 1.5 million kilometers of Star Rating and FSI estimations in 128 countries. Deploying an observational before-and-after (or pre-post) study design, this report estimated the fatal and series injuries (FSI) saved through use of the iRAP protocols. The study is based on 441,753 kilometers of assessed roads from 1,039 projects in 74 countries. Our results show that the implementation of iRAP's proposed countermeasures saves about 159,936 FSI annually. Throughout the lifetime of the implemented countermeasures, a total of 3.2 million FSI could be saved. CONCLUSION: While quantifying the success of the iRAP protocols, our results suggest an opportunity to save many millions more lives on the roads through expanding iRAP implementation to more regions and countries.

Road Traffic Injuries in South Africa: A Complex Global Health Crisis.

1.3 million people die each year as a result of Road traffic crashes. Road Traffic Injuries are a global health crisis with 90% of global deaths affecting LMICs. Sustainable Development Goal 3.6 focuses on reducing road injury and death. The global plan is based on the Safe Systems approach. In South Africa, the burden of crashes on the health system and society is particularly high with a population death rate of 20.7 per 100 000 population. Understanding local context and culture is critical. Rurality, distorted urban planning, higher travel exposure and alcohol usage disproportionately impact racial and ethnic minorities. Pedestrian safety is a key priority. There is a critical need for the global health community to take an active role in advocacy in order to achieve SDG 3.6 by 2030.

State cannabis laws and cannabis positivity among fatally injured drivers.

BACKGROUND: As of November 8, 2023, 24 states and the District of Columbia have legalized cannabis for both recreational and medical use (RMCL-states), 14 states have legalized cannabis for medical use only (MCL-states) and 12 states have no comprehensive cannabis legislation (NoCL-states). As more states legalize cannabis for recreational use, it is critical to understand the impact of such policies on driving safety. METHODS: Using the 2019 and 2020 Fatality Analysis Reporting System data, we performed multivariable logistic regression modeling to explore the association between state level legalization status and cannabis positivity using toxicological testing data for 14,079 fatally injured drivers. We performed a sensitivity analysis by including multiply imputed toxicological testing data for the 14,876 eligible drivers with missing toxicological testing data. RESULTS: Overall, 4702 (33.4%) of the 14,079 fatally injured drivers tested positive for cannabis use. The prevalence of cannabis positivity was 30.7% in NoCL-states, 32.8% in MCL-states, and 38.2% in RMCL-states (p < 0.001). Compared to drivers fatally injured in NoCL-states, the adjusted odds ratios of testing positive for cannabis were 1.09 (95% confidence interval: 0.99, 1.19) for those fatally injured in MCL-states and 1.54 (95% confidence interval: 1.34, 1.77) for those fatally injured in RMCL-states. Sensitivity analysis yielded similar results. CONCLUSIONS: Over one-third of fatally injured drivers tested positive for cannabis use. Drivers fatally injured in states with laws permitting recreational use of cannabis were significantly more likely to test positive for cannabis use than those in states without such laws. State medical cannabis laws had little impact on the odds of cannabis positivity among fatally injured drivers.

Analysis and regulation of driving behavior in the entrance zone of freeway tunnels: Implementation of visual guidance systems in China.

In China, visual guidance systems are commonly used in tunnels to optimize the visual reference system. However, studies focusing specifically on visual guidance systems in the tunnel entrance zone are limited. Hence, a driving simulation test is performed in this study to quantitatively evaluate the effectiveness of (i) visual guidance devices at different vertical positions (pavement and roadside) and (ii) a multilayer visual guidance system for regulating driving behavior in the tunnel entrance zone. Furthermore, the characteristics of driving behavior and their effects on traffic safety in the tunnel entrance zone are examined. Data such as the vehicle position, area of interest (AOI), throttle position, steering wheel angle, and lane center offset are obtained using a driving simulation platform and an eye-tracking device. As indicators, the first fixation position (FP), starting deceleration position (DP), average throttle position (TPav), number of deceleration stages (N|DS), gradual change degree of the vehicle trajectory (G|VT), and average steering wheel angle (SWAav) are derived. The regulatory effect of visual guidance devices on driving performance is investigated. First, high-position roadside visual guidance devices effectively reduce decision urgency and significantly enhance deceleration and lane-keeping performance. Specifically, the advanced deceleration performance (AD), smooth deceleration performance (SD), trajectory gradualness (TG), and trajectory stability (TS) in the tunnel entrance zone improve by 63%, 225%, 269%, and 244%, respectively. Additionally, the roadside low-position visual guidance devices primarily target the trajectory gradualness (TG), thus resulting in improvements by 80% and 448% in the TG and TS, respectively. Meanwhile, the pavement visual guidance devices focus solely on enhancing the TS and demonstrates a relatively lower improvement rate of 99%. Finally, the synergistic effect of these visual guidance devices facilitates the multilayer visual guidance system in enhancing the deceleration and lane-keeping performance. This aids drivers in early detection and deceleration at the tunnel entrance zone, reduces the urgency of deceleration decisions, promotes smoother deceleration, and improves the gradualness and stability of trajectories.

Do comparative judgements affect the perceived relevance of mobile phone road safety campaigns?

OBJECTIVE: Given the prevalence of illegal mobile phone use while driving and reliance upon messaging campaigns in deterring the behavior, there is a need to explore to what extent comparative judgements may influence desired outcomes of such campaigns. This exploratory study investigated (a) the perceived relevance and influence of different mobile phone road safety campaigns within a sample of Queensland motorists who reported using their mobile phone while driving and (b) if these varied depending on whether participants believed that their crash risk whilst using a phone was higher (comparative pessimism), lower (comparative optimism) or similar to the same-age and sex driver. METHODS: A total of 350 licensed drivers residing within Queensland (Australia) were included in this study, of which 200 reported using their hand-held phone on some occasion. Participation involved completing a 20-25 min online anonymous survey, which included viewing three mobile phone road safety campaigns (injury-based, sanction-based and humor) and responding to questions about the perceived relevance and impact of each campaign. RESULTS: A total of 64 (32%) participants displayed comparative optimism, 50 displayed similar judgements (25%) and 86 (43%) exhibited comparative pessimism. First, it was found that the injury-based campaign was perceived to be significantly more relevant than the humor campaign. Second, whilst the relevance of each campaign did not vary as a function of group membership, the campaigns were significantly less relevant to those displaying comparative optimism relative to those with similar judgements and comparative pessimism. Finally, the injury-based campaign was perceived to be significantly more influential than the other campaigns. However, overall, participants displaying comparative optimism believed that they would be less influenced by the campaigns compared to those with comparative pessimism. CONCLUSIONS: Although preliminary, these findings suggest that low perceptions of risk may dilute or extinguish the desired behavioral outcomes of mobile phone road safety campaigns. Nonetheless, experimental research is needed to examine these effects directly.

Recommendations for effective collaboration and capacity building in epidemiological studies on the effect of alcohol and drug use on traffic safety in low- and middle-income countries.

OBJECTIVE: Alcohol or drug impairment is a major risk factor for road traffic crashes, and studies on this issue are essential to provide evidence-based data for policymakers. In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), such studies are often conducted in partnership with one or more organizations in high-income countries (HICs). The aim of this article is to provide recommendations for improving project planning and decision-making processes in epidemiological studies on alcohol, drug and traffic safety in LMICs involving HICs. METHODS: We searched Pubmed, Google Scholar, and Google Search for articles and reports in English about lessons learned when conducting collaborative research in LMIC as well as papers presenting recommendations for effective research collaboration with partners in LMICs. RESULTS: Based on the search results, we selected 200 papers for full text examination. Few were related to studies on the effect of alcohol or drug use on road traffic safety. However, several conclusions and recommendations from other studies were found to be relevant. We combined the findings with our own experience in a narrative review. We also present a checklist for risk and quality assessment. CONCLUSIONS: Many papers presented similar recommendations, which included the importance of addressing local needs, ensuring adequate resources, local project ownership and leadership, establishing strong partnerships among all involved stakeholders, promoting shared decision-making and planning, and implementing strategies to translate research findings into policy, practice, and publications. It is also important to avoid HIC bias, which prioritizes the interests or perspectives of HICs over those of LMICs.

From sky to road: Incorporating the satellite imagery into analysis of freight truck-related crash factors.

Freight truck-related crashes in urban contexts have caused significant economic losses and casualties, making it increasingly essential to understand the spatial patterns of such crashes. Limitations regarding data availability have greatly undermined the generalizability and applicability of certain prior research findings. This study explores the potential of emerging geospatial data to delve deeply into the determinants of these incidents with a more generalizable research design. By synergizing high-resolution satellite imagery with refined GIS map data and geospatial tabular data, a rich tapestry of the road environment and freight truck operations emerges. To navigate the challenges of zero-inflated issues of the crash datasets, the Tweedie Gradient Boosting model is adopted. Results reveal a pronounced spatial heterogeneity between highway and urban non-highway road networks in crash determinants. Factors such as freight truck activity, intricate road network patterns, and vehicular densities rise to prominence, albeit with varying degrees of influence across highways and urban non-highway terrains. Results emphasize the need for context-specific interventions for policymakers, encompassing optimized urban planning, infrastructural overhauls, and refined traffic management protocols. This endeavor may not only elevate the academic discourse around freight truck-related crashes but also champion a data-driven approach towards safer road ecosystems for all.

The effectiveness of regulations preventing alcohol-related road traffic crashes and fatalities in the European Union countries.

INTRODUCTION: This article addresses the impact of policy measures on the number of alcohol-related crashes and fatalities in European Union countries. In particular, it assesses (1) whether mild or severe penalty measures should be used to reduce the number of crashes and fatalities caused by alcohol; and (2) whether alcoholic beverages should be treated differently or proportionally to their alcohol content. METHODS: This study analyzed the number of alcohol-related crashes and fatalities in 24 European Union countries between 2002 and 2014. The methodology involved fixed-effects panel models, models with instrumental variables, the Hausman-Taylor model, and seemingly unrelated regressions (SUR). SUR improve the results of coefficient estimates when the data are not complete. RESULTS: The results of the SUR indicated that vehicle impoundment, community service, and alcolocks correlate with lower crashes, while detention correlates with lower fatalities. Furthermore, a higher alcohol content in beverages is positively associated with fatalities and negatively associated with the number of crashes. CONCLUSIONS: Mild and harsh measures for preventing alcohol-related crashes and fatalities differ in effectiveness; therefore, they should be used simultaneously. Blood alcohol concentration limits were found to be an ineffective tool for preventing crashes and fatalities under the influence of alcohol. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: The regulatory restrictions on different types of alcohol should be stricter for hard alcohol (especially spirits) and lower for low-alcohol beverages, such as beer, if fewer fatalities are preferred to fewer crashes.

Evaluation of point-to-point speed cameras to control speeding behavior in Thailand.

INTRODUCTION: This research examines the effectiveness of point-to-point speed cameras in Thailand compared with spot speed camera enforcement, which is widely used in the country. METHOD: The evaluation includes the speed control's efficiency by observing the 85th percentile average speed of drivers on the road; the speed detection rate; conducting a comparison with spot speed camera enforcement; and a cost effectiveness analysis of this measure. RESULTS: After speed detection using point-to-point cameras were employed during which warning tickets were issued in many days of experiment, the 85th percentile average speed in the controlled area decreased by 10 km/hr, with a maximum decrease of 20 km/hr. When comparing the detection rate of the two camera models, point-to-point cameras could detect 95% of drivers' driving speed, with 45% of the detected drivers identified as speeding drivers, while spot speed cameras were only able to detect 10% to 20% of speeders. Drivers traveling through the area with point-to-point cameras were more likely to drive at a constant speed throughout the average speed detection area. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The point-to-point camera system is determined to be quite cost-effective.

Development of a community severance index for urban areas in the United States: A case study in New York City.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Traffic-related exposures, such as air pollution and noise, have a detrimental impact on human health, especially in urban areas. However, there remains a critical research and knowledge gap in understanding the impact of community severance, a measure of the physical separation imposed by road infrastructure and motorized road traffic, limiting access to goods, services, or social connections, breaking down the social fabric and potentially also adversely impacting health. We aimed to robustly quantify a community severance metric in urban settings exemplified by its characterization in New York City (NYC). METHODS: We used geospatial location data and dimensionality reduction techniques to capture NYC community severance variation. We employed principal component pursuit, a pattern recognition algorithm, combined with factor analysis as a novel method to estimate the Community Severance Index. We used public data for the year 2019 at census block group (CBG) level on road infrastructure, road traffic activity, and pedestrian infrastructure. As a demonstrative application of the Community Severance Index, we investigated the association between community severance and traffic collisions, as a proxy for road safety, in 2019 in NYC at CBG level. RESULTS: Our data revealed one multidimensional factor related to community severance explaining 74% of the data variation. In adjusted analyses, traffic collisions in general, and specifically those involving pedestrians or cyclists, were nonlinearly associated with an increasing level of Community Severance Index in NYC. CONCLUSION: We developed a high spatial-resolution Community Severance Index for NYC using data available nationwide, making it feasible for replication in other cities across the United States. Our findings suggest that increases in the Community Severance Index across CBG may be linked to increases in traffic collisions in NYC. The Community Severance Index, which provides a novel traffic-related exposure, may be used to inform equitable urban policies that mitigate health risks and enhance well-being.

Crash causation, countermeasures, and policy - Editorial.

This editorial is both an introduction to the papers that make up this special issue (on the Relationship between Crash Causation, Countermeasures, and Policy) and an attempt at drawing conclusions. To assist the reader, we begin with a brief description of the subject matter of each paper. As expected, the authors tackle different aspects of this general topic and often differ in their conclusions. We follow up by asking: Are in-depth crash causation studies helpful? Can the need for understanding causation be defended? Does the Swiss Cheese Metaphor require revision? What are the building blocks on which the crash injury prevention programs rest? Can one really avoid comparing costs and benefits? These are some of the issues we raise and discuss. We end by offering for consideration a realistic model to link causes, countermeasures, policy, and responsibility for public safety.

Network-wide road crash risk screening: A new framework.

Network-wide road crash risk screening is a crucial issue for road safety authorities in governing the impact of road infrastructures over road safety worldwide. Specifically, screening methods, which also enable a proactive approach (i.e., pinpointing critical segments before crashes occur), would be extremely beneficial. Existing literature provided valuable insights on road network screening and crash prediction models. However, no research tried to quantify the risk of crash on the road network by considering its main components together (i.e., probability, vulnerability, and exposure). This study covers this gap by a new framework. It integrates road safety factors, prediction models and a risk-based method, and returns the risk value on each road segment as a function of the probability of a crash occurrence and the related severity as well as the exposure model. Next, road segments are ranked according to the risk value and classified by a five-level scale, to show the parts of road network with the highest crash risk. Experiments show the capability of this framework by integrating base map data, context information, road traffic data and five years of real-world crash data records of the whole non-urban road network of the Province of Brescia (Lombardy Region - Italy). This framework introduces a valid support for road safety authorities to help identify the most critical road segments on the network, prioritise interventions and, possibly, improve the safety performance. Finally, this framework can be incorporated in any safety managerial system.

Advancing traffic safety through the safe system approach: A systematic review.

The Safe System Approach (SSA) has emerged as a comprehensive framework for enhancing traffic safety through system-wide interventions. This systematic review, conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, analyzes 82 relevant studies categorized based on the SSA pillars: safe road users, safe vehicles, safe speeds, safe roads, and post-crash care. The review provides insights into SSA's effectiveness in reducing road traffic fatalities and injuries, exploring implementation challenges and opportunities, including policy initiatives, institutional frameworks, and stakeholder collaborations. The findings highlight the potential for SSA to create a more forgiving and resilient transportation system, offering valuable guidance for policy decisions, future research, and interventions aimed at promoting safer road environments. SSA's comprehensive strategy for Safe Road Users encompasses considerations of road system design, behavior modification, and tailored measures for vulnerable users, showcasing its versatility in addressing diverse challenges. In the realm of Safe Vehicles, SSA actively involves manufacturers in a cycle of continuous improvement, rigorous testing, and collaborative efforts to establish new safety regulations. The emphasis on managing Safe Speeds, aligning with human parameters, and involving communities reflects SSA's adaptable nature and provides insights for establishing context-specific speed limits. SSA contributes significantly to Safe Roads through its implementation of innovative countermeasures, forgiving road designs, and the integration of emerging disciplines, resulting in a notable reduction in fatalities and injuries. In the domain of Post-Crash Care, SSA's integrated perspective fosters collaboration among emergency services, medical professionals, and the justice system. It addresses challenges through standardized approaches and information sharing, ensuring a comprehensive and unified approach to road safety. This review contributes to the ongoing efforts to prioritize safety and transform the transportation landscape on a global scale.

Driver yield and safe child pedestrian crossing behavior promotion by a school traffic warden program at primary school crossings: A cluster-randomized trial.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of a school traffic warden program on increasing driver yield and safe child pedestrian crossing behavior in Kampala, Uganda. METHODS: We designed and implemented a school traffic warden program in specific school zones in Kampala, Uganda. We randomly assigned 34 primary schools in Kampala, in a 1:1 ratio, using a computer-generated randomization sequence, to control or intervention arms in a cluster randomized trial. Each school in the intervention group received one trained adult traffic warden stationed at roads adjacent to schools to help young children safely cross. The control schools continued with the standard of care. We extracted and coded outcome data from video recordings on driver yield and child crossing behavior (defined as waiting at the curb, looking both ways for oncoming vehicles, not running while crossing, and avoiding illegal crossing between vehicles) at baseline and after 6 months. Using a mixed effect modified Poisson regression model, we estimated the prevalence ratio to assess whether being in a school traffic warden program was associated with increased driver yield and safe crossing behavior. RESULTS: A higher proportion of drivers yielded to child pedestrians at crossings with a school traffic warden (aPR 7.2; 95% CI 4.42-11.82). Children were 70% more likely to demonstrate safe crossing behavior in the intervention clusters than in control clusters (aPR 1.7; 95% CI 1.04-2.85). A higher prevalence was recorded for walking while crossing (aPR 1.2; 95% CI 1.08-1.25) in the intervention clusters. CONCLUSION: The school traffic warden program is associated with increased driver yield and safe child pedestrian crossing behavior, i.e., stopping at the curb, walking while crossing, and not crossing between vehicles. Therefore, the school traffic warden program could be promoted to supplement other road safety measures, such as pedestrian safety road infrastructure, legislation, and enforcement that specifically protects children in school zones.

Understanding the relationship between road users and the roadway infrastructure in Ghana.

Ghana exemplifies the contribution of road crashes to mortality and morbidity in Africa, partly due to a growing population and increasing car ownership, where fatalities have increased by 12 to 15 % annually since 2008 (National Road Safety Authority (NRSA), 2017). The study described in this paper focused on understanding driver behavior at unsignalized junctions in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Understanding driver behavior at unsignalized junctions is particularly important since failure to stop or yield can seriously affect vulnerable road users. The study's objectives were to develop relationships between driver behavior and junction characteristics. Understanding the characteristics that lead to determining what factors influence a driver's behavioral response at rural junctions provides information for policy makers to determine the best strategies to address these behaviors. The study evaluated stopping behavior at rural junctions. Driver behavior was extracted from video views of ten junctions in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. A total of 3,420 vehicles were observed across all ten junctions during data collection before any analysis was conducted. The type of stop was selected as a surrogate measure of safety. Logistic regression was used to model stopping behavior at the selected junctions. The analysis showed drivers were more likely to stop when going straight (versus a left turn) and left turning vehicles were more likely to stop than right turning vehicles. Additionally, single unit trucks and tro-tros were more likely to stop than other vehicle types. Drivers were also much more likely to stop when channelization, intersection lighting, or speed humps were present. Drivers at junctions with 4-approaches were also more likely to stop than those with 3 approaches. The results from this research contribute valuable information about what factors contribute to positive safety behaviors at rural junctions. This provides guidance for safety professionals to select solutions and can be a valuable tool to predict the economical effectiveness of solutions to addressing junction safety in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) such as Ghana. The results can also provide insight and recommendations to Ghanaian road safety agencies and launch sustainable efforts to raise community awareness toward decreasing road crash fatalities in Ghana.

Examining factors affecting driver injury severity in speeding-related crashes: a comparative study across driver age groups.

This paper investigates the factors influencing the severity of driver injuries in single-vehicle speeding-related crashes, by comparing different driver age groups. This study employed a random threshold random parameter hierarchical ordered probit model and analysed crash data from Thailand between 2012 and 2017. The findings showed that young drivers face a heightened fatality risk when speeding in passenger cars or pickup trucks, hinting at the role of inexperience and risk-taking behaviours. Old drivers exhibit an increased fatality risk when speeding, especially in rainy conditions, on flush median roads, and during evening peak hours, attributed to reduced reaction times and vulnerability to adverse weather. Both young and elderly drivers face escalated fatality risks when speeding on road segments lacking guardrails during adverse weather, with older drivers being particularly vulnerable in rainy conditions. All age groups show an elevated fatality risk when speeding on barrier median roads, underscoring the significant role of speeding, which increases crash impact and limits margins of error and manoeuvrability, thereby highlighting the need for safety measures focusing on driver behaviour. These findings underscore the critical imperative for interventions addressing not only driver conduct but also road infrastructure, collectively striving to curtail the severity of speeding-related crashes.

Novice driver crashes: The relation between putative causal factors, countermeasures, real world implementations, and policy - A case study in simple, scalable solutions.

Novice drivers are at a greatly inflated risk of crashing. This led in the 20th century to numerous attempts to develop training programs that could reduce their crash risk. Yet, none proved effective. Novice drivers were largely considered careless, not clueless. This article is a case study in the United States of how a better understanding of the causes of novice driver crashes led to training countermeasures targeting teen driving behaviors with known associations with crashes. These effects on behaviors were large enough and long-lasting enough to convince insurance companies to develop training programs that they offered around the country to teen drivers. The success of the training programs at reducing the frequency of behaviors linked to crashes also led to several large-scale evaluations of the effect of the training programs on actual crashes. A reduction in crashes was observed. The cumulative effect has now led to state driver licensing agencies considering as a matter of policy both to include items testing the behaviors linked to crashes on licensing exams and to require training on safety critical behaviors. The effort has been ongoing for over a quarter century and is continuing. The case study highlights the critical elements that made it possible to move from a paradigm shift in the understanding of crash causes to the development and evaluation of crash countermeasures, to the implementation of those crash countermeasures, and to subsequent policy changes at the state and federal level. Key among these elements is the development of simple, scalable solutions.

E-scooters: Still the new kid on the transport block. Assessing e-scooter legislation knowledge and illegal riding behaviour.

The use of e-scooters is rapidly increasing in cities, leading to their integration into the transportation system. However, numerous collisions involving e-scooters, including some resulting in fatalities, have been reported since their introduction. These incidents indicate that the potential dangers posed by e-scooters may be underestimated. Research suggests that a significant factor contributing to these collisions is the prevalence of illegal riding behaviour exhibited by many riders. This paper presents three studies that aimed to assess the understanding of e-scooter riders and non-riders of the current legislation across various riding scenarios and link it to their profile, riding habits, and their proneness to engage in illegal riding behaviours. Study 1 utilised questionnaires to survey participants and gather information about their profiles and self-reported illegal riding behaviour. Study 2 focused on assessing participants' knowledge of the current e-scooter legislation through different everyday riding scenarios. Study 3 featured short video clips from the rider's perspective to determine the proneness of participants to engage in illegal riding behaviour and explore the potential relationship between these behaviours and their understanding of e-scooter rules. The findings revealed that e-scooter riders were generally younger and exhibited a higher propensity for engaging in illegal riding behaviour than non-users. Both groups demonstrated limited knowledge regarding various aspects of the current e-scooter legislation, particularly related to parking, speeding, and designated infrastructure. While e-scooter riders demonstrated relatively greater knowledge of the e-scooter rules, this was not consistently observed across all areas, particularly in relation to riding on pavements (pedestrian footpaths). Furthermore, Study 3 revealed that participants with better knowledge of the current legislation were less likely to engage in illegal riding behaviour. These findings suggest a need for targeted interventions and educational campaigns to improve riders' understanding of regulations and promote safer riding practices. Implementing training programs for e-scooter safety could significantly enhance riders' awareness of the associated dangers, fostering responsible e-scooter use.