Parenting as a Moderator of the Relation Between Child Inhibited Temperament and Anxiety in Western Contexts: A Systematic Review.

The literature on the role of parenting in the relation between child inhibited temperament and child anxiety is inconsistent, with some literature supporting a moderating role and some literature supporting alternative (e.g., mediating) roles. A systematic review of the evidence that parenting moderates the longitudinal relation between child inhibited temperament and child anxiety is needed. A systematic review of the literature was conducted in February and March of 2022 and repeated in January of 2024. Ten articles met criteria for inclusion, with 39 moderation analyses of interest among them. All included studies were conducted in Western contexts with predominately White, middle-class families. Thus, the current review can only be generalized to this population. Despite inconsistent findings, some evidence indicated that avoidance-promoting parenting behaviors such as overprotection and overinvolvement moderate the relation between child inhibited temperament and social anxiety symptoms, in particular. There was a lack of evidence that parenting behaviors moderate the relation between child inhibited temperament and anxiety disorders, and that affect-related parenting behaviors (e.g., negativity) moderate the relation between child inhibited temperament and non-social anxiety symptoms. There was mixed evidence regarding the moderating role of control-related parenting behaviors in the relation between child inhibited temperament and non-social anxiety symptoms, with some evidence that encouraging behaviors moderate this relation. Future research is needed to clarify these inconsistent and nuanced findings and investigate this moderation in non-Western, non-White, and low-income populations.

The pathway to maternal protective parenting behavior: Maternal physiology, child temperament, and maternal beliefs.

Protective parenting, when enacted in contexts that do not require it, predicts child anxiety. Both child (e.g., temperament) and maternal (e.g., physiology and cognition) factors relate to parenting behavior, supporting family systems theory. In order to better understand the development of environmental risk for child anxiety, the present study applied the integrated social information and emotion processing theory to protective parenting, assessing concurrent relations among child temperament, maternal physiology, maternal cognitions, and protective parenting in toddlerhood. The present study also investigated whether the theory could be applied to longitudinal relations, testing cognition as a mechanism by which maternal physiology and child temperament predict maternal protective parenting over time. Study participants included 189 mothers (89.9% White, 2.1% Hispanic, 32.3% with annual household income ≤ $40,000) and children (55.6% male, 81.0% White, 3.7% Hispanic). Results indicated that the theory was partially applicable to both concurrent and prospective mother-child relations implicated in child anxiety development. Namely, child inhibited temperament (IT) related concurrently to maternal beliefs about the harm of child anxiety at child age 1 year, and to maternal protective parenting at child ages 2 and 3 years. Maternal baseline respiratory sinus arrythmia related to protective parenting at child age 3 years. Longitudinally, maternal beliefs at child age 1 year predicted maternal perceptions of child IT at child age 2 years. Maternal beliefs at child age 2 years predicted maternal protective parenting at child age 3 years. Although the mechanistic role of cognition was not supported, child emotion processes and maternal cognitions may uniquely contribute to maternal protective parenting. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia, Effortful Control, and Child Social Anxiety Symptoms.

Emotion dysregulation is implicated in child social anxiety and its etiology. Child emotion dysregulation has been studied via physiological indicators (e.g., respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) and behavioral indicators (e.g., effortful control). Previous work suggests that physiological indicators of regulation may predict outcomes in a non-linear manner and must be considered within the context of other intrapersonal factors, perhaps including effortful control. To this end, the current study tested effortful control as a moderator of the relation between RSA and child social anxiety, considering both linear and curvilinear patterns and controlling for inhibited temperament, an established predictor of child anxiety. Children (n = 119; 44% female) participated when they were 4 years old and entering school age (5 to 7 years). Mothers reported on children's effortful control (age 4) and social anxiety (school age). Children's RSA (age 4) was calculated from electrocardiogram data when they were at rest (i.e., baseline RSA) and when they were giving a speech. Results indicated that when children were high in effortful control, lower baseline RSA predicted higher social anxiety symptoms. Tentative evidence emerged for a relation between greater suppression of RSA during the speech compared to baseline and higher social anxiety symptoms when children were low in effortful control. Results support assessing the temperamental domain of effortful control as a contextualizing factor in the relation between psychophysiology and child anxiety outcomes.

Transactional relations between maternal anxiety and toddler anxiety risk through toddler-solicited comforting behavior.

INTRODUCTION: Transactional developmental and anxiety theories suggest that mothers and toddlers may influence each other's anxiety development across early childhood. Further, toddlers' successful solicitations of comfort during uncertain, yet manageable, situations, may be a behavioral mechanism by which mothers and toddlers impact each other over time. To test these ideas, the current study employed a longitudinal design to investigate bidirectional relations between maternal anxiety and toddler anxiety risk (observed inhibited temperament and mother-perceived anxiety, analyzed separately), through the mediating role of toddler-solicited maternal comforting behavior, across toddlerhood. METHODS: Mothers (n = 174; 93.6% European American) and their toddlers (42.4% female; 83.7% European American) participated in laboratory assessments at child ages 1, 2, and 3 years. Mothers self-reported anxiety symptoms. Toddler anxiety risk was observed in the laboratory as inhibited temperament and reported by mothers. Solicited comforting interactions were observed across standardized laboratory tasks. RESULTS: Direct and indirect bidirectional effects were tested simultaneously in two longitudinal path models. Toddler anxiety risk, but not maternal anxiety, predicted solicited comforting behavior, and solicited comforting behavior predicted maternal anxiety. No convincing evidence for parent-directed effects on toddler anxiety risk emerged. CONCLUSION: Results support continued emphasis on child-elicited effects in child and parent anxiety development in early childhood.

Whole Blood Serotonin Levels and Platelet 5-HT2A Binding in Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Elevated whole blood serotonin (WB5-HT) is a well-replicated biomarker in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Decreased platelet serotonin receptor 5-HT2A binding has been reported in ASD. WB5-HT levels and platelet 5-HT2A specific binding were obtained from 110 individuals with ASD and 18 controls. Individuals with ASD had significantly higher WB5-HT levels than controls. There was no difference in the platelet 5-HT2A specific binding between groups. Multiple regression analyses revealed that platelet 5-HT2A binding significantly predicted WB5-HT in the control sample but not in the ASD sample. These results indicate that the relationship between WB5-HT and platelet 5-HT2A binding differs depending on ASD diagnosis, suggesting differences in platelet 5-HT system regulation in ASD.