Unraveling radiation resistance strategies in two bacterial strains from the high background radiation area of Chavara-Neendakara: A comprehensive whole genome analysis.

This paper reports the results of gamma irradiation experiments and whole genome sequencing (WGS) performed on vegetative cells of two radiation resistant bacterial strains, Metabacillus halosaccharovorans (VITHBRA001) and Bacillus paralicheniformis (VITHBRA024) (D10 values 2.32 kGy and 1.42 kGy, respectively), inhabiting the top-ranking high background radiation area (HBRA) of Chavara-Neendakara placer deposit (Kerala, India). The present investigation has been carried out in the context that information on strategies of bacteria having mid-range resistance for gamma radiation is inadequate. WGS, annotation, COG and KEGG analyses and manual curation of genes helped us address the possible pathways involved in the major domains of radiation resistance, involving recombination repair, base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair and mismatch repair, and the antioxidant genes, which the candidate could activate to survive under ionizing radiation. Additionally, with the help of these data, we could compare the candidate strains with that of the extremely radiation resistant model bacterium Deinococccus radiodurans, so as to find the commonalities existing in their strategies of resistance on the one hand, and also the rationale behind the difference in D10, on the other. Genomic analysis of VITHBRA001 and VITHBRA024 has further helped us ascertain the difference in capability of radiation resistance between the two strains. Significantly, the genes such as uvsE (NER), frnE (protein protection), ppk1 and ppx (non-enzymatic metabolite production) and those for carotenoid biosynthesis, are endogenous to VITHBRA001, but absent in VITHBRA024, which could explain the former's better radiation resistance. Further, this is the first-time study performed on any bacterial population inhabiting an HBRA. This study also brings forward the two species whose radiation resistance has not been reported thus far, and add to the knowledge on radiation resistant capabilities of the phylum Firmicutes which are abundantly observed in extreme environment.

Optimization of Metal Ion/Fuel Ratio for an Effective Combustion of Monticellite and Investigation of Its Microbial and Hemolytic Activity for Biomedical Applications.

Bioactive silicates have gained popularity as bone graft substitutes in recent years due to their exceptional ability to bind to host tissues. The current study investigates the effect of changing the metal ion-to-fuel ratio on the properties and biological activity of monticellite prepared via the sol-gel connived combustion technique. Single-phasic monticellite was obtained at 900 °C, without any secondary-phase contaminants for the fuel-lean, stoichiometric, and fuel-rich conditions. SEM and TEM micrographs revealed the porous, spongy morphology of the materials. Because of the reduced crystallite size and higher surface area, the biomineralization of monticellite prepared under fuel-lean conditions resulted in more apatite deposition than those of the other two samples. The results show that the material has a good compressive strength comparable to natural bone, while its brittleness is equivalent to the lower moduli of bone. In terms of antibacterial and antifungal activities, the monticellite bioceramics outperformed the clinical pathogens. It can be used for bone tissue engineering and other biological applications due to its excellent anti-inflammatory and hemolysis inhibitory properties.

Degradation of Emerging Pharmaceutical Pollutants from Wastewater Using Penicillium aurantiogriseum 2AJS.

Approximately 3000 pharmaceutical compounds and personal care products (PPCPs) are utilized and discharged into the wastewater at low levels, and they are rarely removed or treated in wastewater treatment facilities. The present study focused on the potential ability of Penicillium aurantiogriseum 2AJS to degrade pharmaceutical and personal care products of different classes of drugs: antipyretic and analgesic drugs (paracetamol, diclofenac, and ibuprofen) and hormones (estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone). Various ligninolytic extracellular enzymatic studies were also studied. A phytotoxicity assay was performed using the Lemna minor species procured from the Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore. The results revealed degradation of pharmaceutical and personal care products to 95.27% (paracetamol), 94.37% (diclofenac), 89.29% (ibuprofen), 94.16% (progesterone), 91.10% (estrogen), and 82.12% (testosterone). GC-MS and NMR analyses aided in proposing the degradation pathway of all six pharmaceutical compounds. Degradation kinetics showed a first-order model for all the degradation studies with R2 values ranging between 0.89 and 0.95. A toxicological assay using Lemna minor showed very less toxicity of degraded compounds with a toxicity index ranging between 1.2 and 1.5 compared to the parent compounds. Hence, strain 2AJS can be used in in situ bioremediation of wastewater treatment processes.

Mycoremediation of pretilachlor and its metabolite by Aspergillus ficuum.

Pretilachlor is one of the widely used chloroacetamide herbicides in Asian countries to control weeds in the rice field. The extensive use of herbicides has caused major concern among scientists throughout the world. Therefore, it is essential to develop an efficient method for the remediation of pretilachlor and its harmful by-products from contaminated surfaces. Mycoremediation is known to play a key role in the removal of various environmental contaminants. Hence, in the present study, strain AJN2 Aspergillus ficuum was isolated from a paddy field that was in continuous exposure to pretilachlor for over a decade. The degradation studies showed that the strain was efficiently able to degrade 73% of pretilachlor in an aqueous medium within 15 days of incubation and 70% of its major metabolite PME (2-methyl-6-ethylalanine). The GC/MS profile revealed the formation of aldehyde as the end product of degradation which was confirmed through the infrared fingerprint of the degradation sample. The ligninolytic enzyme activity studies showed that the lignin peroxidase enzyme system could be responsible for the degradation of pretilachlor and its major metabolite. The results highlight that the strain AJN2 A. ficuum could be a potential strain for the bioremediation of pretilachlor from the contaminated areas.

Biomineralization of pretilachlor by free and immobilized fungal strains isolated from paddy field.

The excessive use of pretilachlor (a chloroacetamide herbicide) has raised concern throughout the world as it has been reported as highly toxic. The present study deals with isolating and screening pretilachlor degrading fungal strains. The strains Aspergillus ficuum (AJN2) and Aspergillus sp. (PDF1) isolated using enrichment technique were able to degrade 79% and 73% of pretilachlor respectively as analyzed using HPLC. Further, the immobilization technique was used in the study the pretilachlor degradation ability of the isolated strains. The immobilized spores of the strains AJN2 and PDF1 mineralized 84% and 95% of pretilachlor respectively. The degradation dynamics study revealed that the DT50 value of the herbicide was reduced to 2.4 d in aqueous medium due to the enhanced enzymatic activity. The enzymatic study showed high lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase activity by the strains AJN2 and PDF1 respectively. The study confirmed the efficient degradation of pretilachlor by Aspergillus ficuum (AJN2).

Biomineralization, mechanical, antibacterial and biological investigation of larnite and rankinite bioceramics.

This work is aimed to develop a biocompatible, bactericidal and mechanically stable biomaterial to overcome the challenges associated with calcium phosphate bioceramics. The influence of chemical composition on synthesis temperature, bioactivity, antibacterial activity and mechanical stability of least explored calcium silicate bioceramics was studied. The current study also investigates the biomedical applications of rankinite (Ca3Si2O7) for the first time. Sol-gel combustion method was employed for their preparation using citric acid as a fuel. Differential thermal analysis indicated that the crystallization of larnite and rankinite occurred at 795 °C and 1000 °C respectively. The transformation of secondary phases into the desired product was confirmed by XRD and FT-IR. TEM micrographs showed the particle size of larnite in the range of 100-200 nm. The surface of the samples was entirely covered by the dominant apatite phase within one week of immersion. Moreover, the compressive strength of larnite and rankinite was found to be 143 MPa and 233 MPa even after 28 days of soaking in SBF. Both samples prevented the growth of clinical pathogens at a concentration of 2 mg/mL. Larnite and rankinite supported the adhesion, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs. The variation in chemical composition was found to influence the properties of larnite and rankinite. The results observed in this work signify that these materials not only exhibit faster biomineralization ability, excellent cytocompatibility but also enhanced mechanical stability and antibacterial properties.

Biodegradation of carbendazim by a potent novel Chryseobacterium sp. JAS14 and plant growth promoting Aeromonas caviae JAS15 with subsequent toxicity analysis.

In the present study, carbendazim (MBC) degrading bacterial strains were isolated and identified as Chryseobacterium sp. JAS14 and Aeromonas caviae JAS15. Both the strains completely degraded 200 mg l-1 of MBC in the aqueous medium and soil within 4-9 days of incubation. In an aqueous medium, the degradation process was characterized by a rate constant of 53.16 day-1 and 42.60 day-1, following zero order model and DT50 was 1.8 days and 2.34 days for Chryseobacterium sp. JAS14 and A. caviae JAS15, respectively. A Chryseobacterium sp. JAS14 and A. caviae JAS15 inoculated into the soil without the addition of nutrients showed the degradation rate constant of 27.30 day-1 and 23.87 day-1, and DT50 was 3.66 days and 4.18 days, respectively. The metabolites during MBC biodegradation by Chryseobacterium sp. JAS14 and A. caviae JAS15 were identified as 2-aminobenzimidazole, 2-hydroxybenzimidazole, 1, 2 diaminobenzene and catechol. To our knowledge, this is the first study of the detailed biodegradation pathway of MBC by Chryseobacterium sp. JAS14 was proposed. Phytotoxicity and cytogenotoxicity assays showed that the toxicity of the MBC reduced after biodegradation by Chryseobacterium sp. JAS14 and A. caviae JAS15. In addition, A. caviae JAS15 possess important plant growth promoting traits under normal and MBC stress condition. These results suggest the Chryseobacterium sp. JAS14 and A. caviae JAS15 could be used as a bioresource for the reclamation of MBC contaminated soil.

Simultaneous mitigation of aluminum, salinity and drought stress in Lactuca sativa growth via formulated plant growth promoting Rhodotorula mucilaginosa CAM4.

In the present study, a potent Aluminum (Al) resistant yeast strain CAM4 was isolated from rhizosphere soil of Rubus geoides, grown in acidic Andisols and identified as Rhodotorula mucilaginosa by 18S rRNA gene sequence analysis. The strain CAM4 was selected in terms of abiotic stress tolerance to Al, salinity and drought with multiple plant growth promoting (PGP) traits. Besides, strain CAM4 also exhibited Al removal efficiency (80-88%) from the culture medium even under combined stresses of salinity and drought. The sawdust-based formulation of strain CAM4 (sawdust-molasses 5%-PEG 1%-strain CAM4) showed higher cell viability of up to 24 weeks (8.54 log CFU g-1). Inoculation of formulated strain CAM4 significantly enhanced the various morphological and biochemical characters of Lactuca sativa grown under abiotic stress conditions. The formulated strain CAM4 also reduced the accumulation of Al in L. sativa as well that conferring Al tolerance to the plants. The study concludes that strain CAM4 could be used as a biofertilizer for healthy and safe crop production in soils, with Al toxicity as well as combined salt and drought stresses.

Biodegradation of fipronil and its metabolite fipronil sulfone by Streptomyces rochei strain AJAG7 and its use in bioremediation of contaminated soil.

Fipronil is a most widely used insecticide. It has been found to be highly toxic to insects with alarming decline in honey bees' population. It has shown to cause severe contamination of soil and water. The present study was undertaken to understand the degradation of fipronil and its metabolite fipronil sulfone using actinomycetes. Fipronil degrading actinomycetes strain AJAG7 was isolated from fipronil contaminated agricultural field by enrichment method. Molecular identification by 16S rRNA gene sequencing identified strain AJAG7 as Streptomyces rochei. The biodegradation of fipronil and its metabolite fipronil sulfone by strain AJAG7 was examined by HPLC. Biodegradation pathway of fipronil by strain AJAG7 was deduced with GC-MS analysis. Scanning electron microscopy was used to investigate the surface morphological changes of strain AJAG7 upon fipronil degradation. Apart from fipronil degradation, low cost powder formulation of strain AJAG7 was prepared using agricultural waste to remediate the fipronil contaminated agricultural field. Results of the present study suggest that strain AJAG7 qualifies as an ideal candidate for biodegradation of fipronil contaminated environment.

Desorption of heavy metals from metal loaded sorbents and e-wastes: A review.

In recent era, with increasing heavy metal pollution, several sorbents are used to remove heavy metals from environment. Application of chemical adsorbents and biosorbents for uptake of heavy metals from soil and waste water is studied thoroughly. Very less attention has been paid to the recovery of heavy metals from sorbents and their reuse. Few researches have been performed to evaluate the recovery of heavy metals from sorbents and regeneration of sorbents for further adsorption processes. This review explains desorption of heavy metals from metal loaded adsorbents and regeneration of adsorbents. Various desorbing eluents and their utilization in desorption of certain metals are compiled along with the techniques and setups followed to achieve better recovery and regeneration rates. The prospect of such eluents in recovery of heavy metals from electronic wastes (e-waste) is scrutinized. This comprehensive study would be advantageous to determine methods and the most suitable desorbents for particular heavy metals for conducting adsorption-desorption cycles.

A molecular simulation analysis of vitamin D targets interleukin 13 (IL13) as an alternative to mometasone in asthma.

Asthma, a chronic lung disease characterized by obstruction of airway passage is characterized by inflammation and hyperresponsiveness with increase in the number of eosinophils. Interleukin-13, plays a significant role in causing inflammation during an asthmatic attack by bronchial constriction. Mometasone, a glucocorticoid has been used as the first line of administration for people affected with asthma for almost a decade. However, in several cases, people treated with mometasone have faced systemic and local side effects. To reduce these side effects, we hypothesized vitamin D that can be used as a substitute to mometasone. For this purpose, we employed the use of molecular docking and simulation studies for comparative study. The docking studies revealed the binding residues of interleukin-13 which are bound to the active site. Among all, we noticed three binding residue Leu83, His84 and Arg86 common for both mometasone and vitamin D. Also, the binding energies share a significant similarity between them. The docked complexes of mometasone and vitamin D with interleukin-13 were evaluated with molecular dynamics simulation. Consistently, the MD analysis uncovered the interesting note on conformational adaptation between the complexes as well as that vitamin D has the complementary binding efficiency to interleukin-13 as compared to mometasone. The substitution of vitamin D might provide a promising gateway to reduce the side effects caused by mometasone and also reduce the cost for treatment of asthma patients.

Antibacterial forsterite (Mg2SiO4) scaffold: A promising bioceramic for load bearing applications.

In the current work, forsterite samples with different surface area were investigated for its antibacterial activity. Dissolution studies show that the lower degradation of forsterite compared to other silicate bioceramics, which is a desirable property for repairing bone defects. Forsterite scaffold shows superior compressive strength than the cortical bone after immersion in simulated body fluid. Bactericidal tests indicate that the forsterite had inhibition effect on the growth of clinical bacterial isolates. Forsterite may be a suitable candidate material for load bearing applications with enhanced mechanical properties and lower degradation rate.

Profiling of red pigment produced by Streptomyces sp. JAR6 and its bioactivity.

Actinomycetes strain was isolated from leaf litter soil sample and was identified as Streptomyces sp. by conventional and molecular approaches. The biologically active compound responsible for antimicrobial and anticancer activity of the strain JAR6 was elucidated by solid state fermentation followed by subsequent chromatographic and spectroscopic analysis. Extraction, purification and structural confirmation of red pigment metabolite viz undecylprodigiosin were established on the basis of spectroscopic studies and comparing the data from the literature. The biologically active compound was tested against Gram-positive and Gram-negative clinical isolates and its minimum inhibitory concentration was recorded. The antimicrobial activity of undecylprodigiosin is more prominent against Salmonella sp., Proteus mirabilis, Shigella sp. and Enterococcus sp. whereas, it was less effective against Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia and Escherichia coli. The anticancer activity of undecylprodigiosin was tested against HeLa cell lines and it exhibited commendable cytotoxicity effect with IC50 value of 145 µg/ml. The present investigation reveals that undecylprodigiosin produced by Streptomyces strain JAR6 is a potent bioactive metabolite with effective pharmaceutical properties.

Biomineralisation of fipronil and its major metabolite, fipronil sulfone, by Aspergillus glaucus strain AJAG1 with enzymes studies and bioformulation.

Fipronil is a phenylpryazole insecticide which is extensively used for the protection of agricultural yields. However, this insecticide poses various threats to  the environment. Therefore it is essential to develop an effective method to degrade or eliminate this pollutant from the  environment. In this present study, a fungal strain AJAG1 capable of degrading fipronil and its metabolite, fipronil sulfone, was isolated through enrichment technique. Isolated fungal strain was identified as Aspergillus glaucus based upon its morphological, and 18S rRNA sequence analysis. Strain AJAG1 could degrade 900 mg L-1 of fipronil efficiently in both aqueous medium and soil. In addition, fipronil degradation was tested with various kinetic models and the results revealed that biodegradation in aqueous medium and soil was ascertained by pseudo-first order and zero order rate kinetics, respectively. The infrared spectrum of fipronil degraded sample confirmed the formation of esters, nitro, and alkanes groups. A tentative degradation pathway of fipronil by strain AJAG1 has been proposed on the basis of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. The lignolytic enzymes activities were studied during fipronil degradation by strain AJAG1. Further, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to examine the surface morphology of strain AJAG1 after fipronil degradation. In the present investigation, bioformulation of strain AJAG1 was developed using low cost materials such as groundnut shell powder, molasses, and fly ash to remediate the fipronil from agricultural field. These results highlight A. glaucus strain AJAG1 may have potential for use in bioremediation of fipronil-contaminated environment.

Screening of Furanone in Cucurbita melo and Evaluation of its Bioactive Potential Using In Silico Studies.

The work presented here attempts to screen for the presence of 4-Hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone in fruits and also any bioactive potential present in the fruit extracts. Curcurbita melo was selected for the study, and the fruit was crushed, filtered and extracted with ethyl acetate as the solvent. The resulting extract was subjected to disk diffusion test using Kirby Bauer method for checking its antimicrobial potential. Melon extract showed promising results against different clinical pathogens, 19-mm zone being the largest against Klebsiella pneumoniae and 17 mm against Shigella dysenteriae. GC-MS data of the melon extract confirmed the existence of furanone derivative in the extract. To evaluate the antimicrobial activity, in silico studies were performed using AutoDock 4.0 software, and topoisomerase was used as the target protein molecule for the isolated compound and 3-methyl-2-(2-oxopropyl)furan as the ligand. Further, the results were interpreted using PyMol and Ligplot plus softwares. The results confirmed the presence of molecular interactions between the protein molecule and the ligand. It can be envisaged that these interactions are responsible for the inhibitory effects of the extract .

Biodegradation of chlorpyrifos and its hydrolysis product 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol using a novel bacterium Ochrobactrum sp. JAS2: A proposal of its metabolic pathway.

Biodegradation of chlorpyrifos and its major metabolite 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCP) were studied with a novel bacterial strain JAS2 isolated from paddy rhizosphere soil. The molecular characterization based on 16S rRNA gene sequence homology confirmed its identity as Ochrobactrum sp. JAS2. The JAS2 strain degraded 300mgl(-1) of chlorpyrifos within 12h of incubation in the aqueous medium and it produced the TCP metabolite. However, after 72h of incubation TCP was also completely degraded by the JAS2 strain. A tentative degradation pathway of chlorpyrifos by Ochrobactrum sp. JAS2 has been proposed on basis of GC-MS analysis. The complete degradation of chlorpyrifos occurred within 24h in the soil spiked with and without addition of nutrients inoculated with Ochrobactrum sp. JAS2. TCP was obtained in both the studies which was degraded completely by 96h in the soil spiked with nutrients and whereas 120h in absence of nutrients in the soil. The mpd gene which is responsible for organophosphorus hydrolase production was identified. The isolates Ochrobactrum sp. JAS2 also exhibited a time dependent increase in the amount of tricalcium phosphate solubilization in Pikovskaya's medium. Further screening of the strain JAS2 for auxiliary plant growth promoting activities revealed its remarkable capability of producing the indole acetic acid (IAA), hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and ammonia.

Microbial degradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) by Aspergillus clavatus strain JASK1 isolated from landfill soil.

Polythene and plastic waste are found to accumulate in the environment, posing a major ecological threat. They are found to be considered non-degradable, once it enters the environment it has been found to remain there indefinitely. However, significant attention has been placed on biodegradable polymer, identification of microbes with degradative potential on plastic material. The aim of the present investigation was to biodegrade low-density polyethylene (LDPE) using potential fungi isolated from landfill soil. Based on 18S rRNA analyses the isolated strain was identified as Aspergillus clavatus. LDPE degradation by A. clavatus was monitored for 90 days of incubation in aqueous medium. The degradation was confirmed by changes in polyethylene weight, CO2 evolution by Strum test, infrared spectra and morphological changes by SEM and AFM analysis.

Plant growth promoting bacteria Enterobacter asburiae JAS5 and Enterobacter cloacae JAS7 in mineralization of endosulfan.

Endosulfan and their metabolites can be detected in soils with a history of endosulfan application. Microbial degradation offers an effective approach to remove toxicants, and in this study, Enterobacter asburiae JAS5 and Enterobacter cloacae JAS7 were isolated through enrichment technique. The biodegradation of endosulfan and its metabolites rate constant (k) and DT50 were determined through first-order kinetic models. E. asburiae JAS5 degraded the endosulfan, and its metabolites in liquid medium was characterized by the k which was 0.382 day(-1) (α-endosulfan), 0.284 day(-1) (ß-endosulfan) and 0.228 day(-1) (endosulfan sulphate), and DT50 was 1.8 day (α-endosulfan), 2.4 days (ß-endosulfan) and 3.0 days (endosulfan sulphate). The α-endosulfan, ß-endosulfan and endosulfan sulphate metabolites were present in the liquid medium that was degraded by E. cloacae JAS7 which was characterized by the k of 0.391, 0.297 day(-1) and 0.273 day(-1), and DT50 was 1.7, 2.3 and 2.5 days, respectively. The infrared spectrum of endosulfan degraded sample in the aqueous medium by E. asburiae JAS5 and E. cloacae JAS7 showed a band at 1402 cm(-1) which is the characteristics of COOH group. E. asburiae JAS5 and E. cloacae JAS7 strains also showed the ability of plant growth promoting traits such as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production, organic acids production and solubilization of various inorganic phosphates. E. asburiae JAS5 solubilized 324 ± 2 µg ml(-1) of tricalcium phosphate, 296 ± 6 µg ml(-1) of dicalcium phosphate and 248 ± 5 µg ml(-1) of zinc phosphate, whereas E. cloacae JAS7 solubilized 338 ± 5, 306 ± 4 and 268 ± 3 µg ml(-1) of tricalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate and zinc phosphate, respectively. The IAA production by JAS5 and JAS7 strains were estimated to be 38.6 ± 0.3 and 46.6 ± 0.5 µg ml(-1), respectively. These bacterial strains form a potential candidate for bioremediation of pesticide-contaminated agricultural fields. In addition, it has been demonstrated that the development of powder formulation has several advantages including high cell count, longer shelf life, greater protection against environmental stresses and increased field efficacy.

Biomineralization and formulation of endosulfan degrading bacterial and fungal consortiums.

Microbial degradation offers an effective approach to remove toxicants and in this study, a microbial consortium consisting of bacterial strains and fungal strains were originally obtained from endosulfan contaminated agricultural soils. Identification of the bacterial isolates by 16S rRNA sequences revealed the isolates to be Halophilic bacterium JAS4, Klebsiella pneumoniae JAS8, Enterobacter asburiae JAS5, and Enterobacter cloacae JAS7, whereas the fungal isolates were identified by 18S rRNA sequences and the isolates were Botryosphaeria laricina JAS6, Aspergillus tamarii JAS9 and Lasiodiplodia sp. JAS12. The biodegradation of endosulfan was monitored by using HPLC and FTIR analysis. The bacterial and fungal consortium could degrade 1000 mg l(-1) of endosulfan efficiently in aqueous medium and in soil. The infrared spectrum of endosulfan degraded samples in the aqueous medium by bacterial and fungal consortium showed bands at 1400 and 950 cm(-1) which are the characteristics of COOH group and acid dimer band respectively. In the present investigation, low cost solid materials such as sawdust, soil, fly ash, molasses and nutrients were used for the formulation of microbial consortium and to achieve greater multiplication and survival of the microbial strains.

Ribosomally synthesized peptides from natural sources.

There are many antibiotic-resistant microbial pathogens that have emerged in recent years causing normal infections to become harder and sometimes impossible to treat. The major mechanisms of acquired resistance are the ability of the microorganisms to destroy or modify the drug, alter the drug target, reduce uptake or increase efflux of the drug and replace the metabolic step targeted by the drug. However, in recent years, resistant strains have been reported from almost every environment. New antimicrobial compounds are of major importance because of the growing problem of bacterial resistance, and antimicrobial peptides have been gaining a lot of interest. Their mechanism of action, however, is often obscure. Antimicrobial peptides are widespread and have a major role in innate immunity. An increasing number of peptides capable of inhibiting microbial growth are being reviewed here. In this article, we consider the possible use of antimicrobial peptides against pathogens.