Noroviruses: Evolutionary Dynamics, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine Advances-A Comprehensive Review.

Noroviruses constitute a significant aetiology of sporadic and epidemic gastroenteritis in human hosts worldwide, especially among young children, the elderly, and immunocompromised patients. The low infectious dose of the virus, protracted shedding in faeces, and the ability to persist in the environment promote viral transmission in different socioeconomic settings. Considering the substantial disease burden across healthcare and community settings and the difficulty in controlling the disease, we review aspects related to current knowledge about norovirus biology, mechanisms driving the evolutionary trends, epidemiology and molecular diversity, pathogenic mechanism, and immunity to viral infection. Additionally, we discuss the reservoir hosts, intra-inter host dynamics, and potential eco-evolutionary significance. Finally, we review norovirus vaccines in the development pipeline and further discuss the various host and pathogen factors that may complicate vaccine development.

Enteropathogenic viruses associated with acute gastroenteritis among African children under 5 years of age: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Gastroenteritis viruses are the leading etiologic agents of diarrhea in children worldwide. We present data from thirty-three (33) eligible studies published between 2003 and 2023 from African countries bearing the brunt of the virus-associated diarrheal mortality. Random effects meta-analysis with proportion, subgroups, and meta-regression analyses were employed. Overall, rotavirus with estimated pooled prevalence of 31.0 % (95 % CI 24.0-39.0) predominated in all primary care visits and hospitalizations, followed by norovirus, adenovirus, sapovirus, astrovirus, and aichivirus with pooled prevalence estimated at 15.0 % (95 % CI 12.0-20.0), 10 % (95 % CI 6-15), 4.0 % (95 % CI 2.0-6.0), 4 % (95 % CI 3-6), and 2.3 % (95 % CI 1-3), respectively. Predominant rotavirus genotype was G1P[8] (39 %), followed by G3P[8] (11.7 %), G9P[8] (8.7 %), and G2P[4] (7.1 %); although, unusual genotypes were also observed, including G3P[6] (2.7 %), G8P[6] (1.7 %), G1P[6] (1.5 %), G10P[8] (0.9 %), G8P[4] (0.5 %), and G4P[8] (0.4 %). The genogroup II norovirus predominated over the genogroup I-associated infections (84.6 %, 613/725 vs 14.9 %, 108/725), with the GII.4 (79.3 %) being the most prevalent circulating genotype. In conclusion, this review showed that rotavirus remains the leading driver of viral diarrhea requiring health care visits and hospitalization among under-five years children in Africa. Thus, improved rotavirus vaccination in the region and surveillance to determine the residual burden of rotavirus and the evolving trend of other enteric viruses are needed for effective control and management of cases.

Coinfection of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Patients with Hepatitis B Virus in Lokoja, North Central Nigeria.

Globally, coinfection of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients with Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) is associated with an accelerated progression of HIV disease and higher mortality resulting from complications of liver-related disease. Despite the public health importance, data are lacking on this subject in the study area. Therefore, we evaluated the prevalence and risk factors for HIV/HBV coinfection among HIV patients accessing antiretroviral treatment in Lokoja, Nigeria. In a cross-sectional study, sera from randomly selected 200 consenting HIV patients were screened for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) using The Commercial Rapid Immunoassay Test Kit. Demographic variables and putative risk factors of HBV transmission were obtained using structured questionnaire. HBsAg prevalence was 8.0% in the sampled group with higher seropositivity rate in the age group, 40-49 years, followed by those 20-29 years of age, whereas the other age groups had zero positivity rates each. The difference between seroprevalence rates in relation to patients' age and sex was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Patients with no formal education, who were married and were housewives, had higher rates of HBV infection compared with others in the group. Although not statistically significant (p > 0.05), the likelihood of exposure to HBV was higher among patients who were engaged in multiple sexual behaviors, alcoholism, smoking, sharing of sharps, ear piercing, and had history of blood transfusion. Conclusively, HIV/HBV coinfection rate in our study is comparable to other localities and thus, affirm the endemicity in the study area. The need to strengthen health education of the masses to desist from risky behaviors is recommended to reduce the morbidity and mortality arising from HIV/HBV comorbidity.

Seroprevalence of HBV, HCV, and HIV and Associated Risk Factors Among Apparently Healthy Pregnant Women in Anyigba, Nigeria.

Globally, infection of pregnant women by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and hepatitis B virus (HBV) pose a significant health challenge for not just the mothers but also the newborn infant. This study was undertaken to assess the prevalence of HIV, HCV, and HBV among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic in Kogi State University Teaching Hospital (KSUTH), Anyigba, Nigeria. Sera samples obtained from 200 consented pregnant women were screened for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), anti-HCV, and anti-HIV antibodies using commercially available immunoassay test kit. Demographic variables and obstetric characteristic were obtained using structured questionnaire. Of the 200 sera tested, the seroprevalence rates were 1.0%, 0.5%, and 8.5% for HBsAg, anti-HCV, and anti-HIV antibodies, respectively. Although 0.5% were coinfected with HIV/HCV, none was simultaneously infected by the three viruses. Age, marital status, trimester, and educational and occupational status did not significantly affect the prevalence of HIV, HCV, and HBV infections. However, factors such as history of abortion/miscarriage (p = 0.04), intravenous drug use (p = 0.001), and history of other sexually transmitted infection (p = 0.01) were significantly higher in relation to HIV seropositivity. In conclusion, findings from this study revealed high HIV seroprevalence and a clear decline of hepatitis C and B infection prevalence compared with previous epidemiological data. Reason for the latter could be attributed to the current efforts to reduce mother-to-child transmission and possible HBV vaccination programs. High burden of HIV infection in our study suggests the needs to strengthen the national prevention programs including education of the people on the risk factors of HIV transmission.