[Screening tools for cannabis use disorders and their adaptation to DSM-5: A literature review]. / Les outils de repérage pour les troubles de l'usage du cannabis et leur adaptation au DSM-5 : une revue de littérature.

OBJECTIVES: Cannabis use is widespread in France, particularly among adolescents and young adults, and can induce severe somatic, psychiatric and social consequences. Early identification and appropriate care of cannabis use disorders thus constitute a major public health issue. Standardized questionnaires based on patient self-reporting are recognized as the best option for identifying cannabis use disorders because of their reliability and simplicity. METHODS: We conducted a narrative literature review on cannabis use assessment tools on PubMed and selected cannabis-specific questionnaires, validated for adolescent and/or adult populations, from scientific articles in English or French between 1995 and 2010. RESULTS: Sixteen questionnaires were found according to the inclusion criteria. The CAGE-cannabis, the CAST, the CUDIT and its revised version the CUDIT-R, the PUM and the SDS are the only ones that have good characteristics for a short screening tool adapted to daily clinical practice, namely to be brief (fewer than 10 questions) and quick handover (less than 10minutes). Only the CAST has been validated in French, and the CUDIT-R is currently being validated. In the DSM-5, diagnoses of abuse or addiction have been grouped into a single diagnosis of cannabis use disorders with different levels of severity. It is relevant that tools used for screening take into account these new diagnostic concepts. The CUDIT-R is currently the only one to be validated based on DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. CONCLUSION: Among the many questionnaires available, few are suited for daily clinical practice in France because of their complexity, their long duration or the absence of a validated French translation. The CUDIT-R has good psychometric characteristics, is simple to use, and has been validated according to the criteria of DSM-5. These questionnaires are obviously not a substitute for a clinical diagnosis and must be followed by a specialist's evaluation. However, they remain an interesting mediation, encouraging a patient's awareness and commitment to care.

Clinician beliefs and practices related to increasing responsivity to the needs of Maori with alcohol and drug problems.

Culturally responsive treatments are often cited as essential for successfully addressing substance use-associated problems in indigenous and other ethnic groups. However, there has been little investigation of the support for this assertion among alcohol and drug-user treatment workers, or how it might translate into clinical practice. The current paper reports on the results of a survey of the New Zealand alcohol and drug-user treatment field, which canvassed these issues. Eighty-six percent of respondents advocated adjustment of clinical practice when working with Maori. Two key strategies were referral to specialist Maori groups or individuals and/or contacting/meeting with whanau (family). Comparisons were made between respondents who referred clients on and those who provided intervention themselves. Implications of results, limitations and future research are discussed.

A randomized controlled trial of motivational enhancement therapy (MET) for mild to moderate alcohol dependence.

OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to conduct a randomized controlled trial of motivational enhancement therapy (MET) with two control conditions: nondirective reflective listening (NDRL) and no further counseling (NFC); and to conduct this study in a sample of patients with a primary diagnosis of mild to moderate alcohol dependence, in a "real-life" clinical setting. METHOD: Patients with mild to moderate alcohol dependence were recruited, assessed and treated at the Community Alcohol and Drug Service of Christchurch, New Zealand. All patients received a feedback/education session before randomization to either four sessions of MET, four sessions of NDRL, or NFC. Outcome data on 122 subjects (57.4% men) were obtained 6 months following the end of treatment, by an interviewer who was blind to the treatment condition. The primary drinking outcome was unequivocal heavy drinking, defined as drinking 10 or more standard drinks six or more times in the follow-up period. Global assessment scale (GAS) measured general personal/social functioning. RESULTS: Of patients treated with MET, 42.9% showed unequivocal heavy drinking compared with 62.5% of the NDRL and 65.0% of the NFC groups (p = .04). No significant differences were found for GAS score according to treatment condition. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with mild to moderate alcohol dependence, MET is more effective for reducing unequivocal heavy drinking than either a feedback/education session alone or four sessions of NDRL. MET can be considered an effective "value added" counseling intervention in a real-life clinical setting. In patients with mild to moderate alcohol dependence, nondirective reflective listening provides no additional advantage over a feedback/education session alone.

A profile of alcohol and drug clients in New Zealand: results from the 1998 national telephone survey.

AIMS: To describe the profile of clients seen across the broad spectrum of dedicated alcohol and drug treatment services in New Zealand. METHODS: 217 randomly selected alcohol and drug treatment workers in New Zealand were interviewed by telephone, yielding a randomly selected sample of 291 clients. Workers were asked to identify the age, gender, ethnicity, main substance use problem and geographical location of clients. RESULTS: 60% of clients were male, 28% were Maori, the mean age was 31 years and the largest group of clients were seen for alcohol related issues (45%), followed by cannabis (27%) and opioids (17%). None of these variables differed significantly across residential/non-residential services. Significant trends to emerge were: that Maori clients were more likely to live rurally and to be in treatment for cannabis use, women were more likely to be in treatment for benzodiazepine use and less likely for cannabis use, opioid users were more likely to be seen at Crown Health Enterprise funded services, and cannabis users were (on average) younger than other clients, while alcohol users were older. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol and drug treatment services are dominated by clients seeking assistance with alcohol and cannabis use problems. Women are not under-represented in this population. Maori are over-represented. This contrasts with the absence of Asian clients and an under-representation of Pacific Island clients. There are some significant variations in the types of drugs used by different demographic treatment seeking populations. In contrast, client differences across treatment settings are minimal.

The pattern of intravenous drug use and associated criminal activity in patients on a methadone treatment waiting list.

Sixty-four patients on the Christchurch Methadone Treatment Programme waiting list were questioned on their drug-use behaviour, criminal activity and sources of income, both legal and illegal, for the preceding 7 days. Opioids used included morphine sulphate tablets, methadone and opium poppies, while other drugs used included tranquillizers, cannabis and alcohol. A significant minority were prescribed opioids. The mean cost of drugs used in 7 days across all subjects was 882 dollars. The mean financial gain from criminal sources for the same period was 1079 dollars and was derived from drug-related crime, property crime and prostitution. Few gender differences were found relating to criminal activity or drug use. The majority of the sample were on unemployment benefits of varying types while a minority were in paid employment. Those in paid employment did not earn significantly less from criminal activity, nor did they spend significantly less on drug use than did those not in paid employment. An important implication of these findings is that untreated opioid users are a substantial financial burden to the community, strongly supporting the argument for greater treatment provision.

Predictors of neonatal encephalopathy in full-term infants.

OBJECTIVE: Preliminary investigation of the contribution of adverse antepartum and intrapartum factors to neonatal encephalopathy in singleton neonates born full term. DESIGN: Matched case-control study based on incidence density sampling of controls. SETTING: Two major teaching hospitals (one paediatric and one obstetric) and three peripheral maternity hospitals in Perth, Western Australia (population 1.2 million). SUBJECTS: 89 cases, all the full term singleton neonates born during an eight month period in 1992 who fulfilled one or more of six criteria during the first week of life (seizures, abnormal conscious state, persistent hypertonia or hypotonia, and feeding or respiratory difficulties of central origin). One full term control infant without neonatal encephalopathy was matched to each case by sex, hospital of delivery, time of day and day of the week of birth, and maternal health insurance status. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Odds ratio estimates of relative risk of neonatal encephalopathy associated with antepartum and intrapartum factors. RESULTS: Estimated incidence of moderate or severe encephalopathy in first week of life was 3.75 per 1000 full term live births. Thirteen cases and no controls had evidence suggestive of important intrapartum hypoxia, and in only five of these cases was the neurological condition at birth attributed to events during the intrapartum period. Univariate conditional logistic regression analysis identified significant differences between cases and controls for maternal vaginal bleeding in pregnancy, maternal thyroxine treatment, congenital abnormalities, induction of labour, interval from membrane rupture to delivery, maternal pyrexia in labour, augmentation of labour, abnormal intrapartum cardiotocograms, and meconium in labour. Family history of convulsions also approached significance. CONCLUSIONS: Our preliminary results suggest that intrapartum hypoxia, according to currently used criteria, was not the cause of neonatal encephalopathy in most cases in this population. Our findings suggest that many aetiologies of neonatal encephalopathy originate in the antepartum period.