Protecting healthcare workers and patients during the COVID-19 pandemic: a comparison of baseline and follow-up infection prevention and control needs in Nigerian military healthcare facilities delivering HIV services.

BACKGROUND: Protecting the HIV health workforce is critical for continuity of services for people living with HIV, particularly during a pandemic. Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, the Nigerian Ministry of Defence, in partnership with the US Military HIV Research Program, took steps to improve infection prevention and control (IPC) practices among staff working in select PEPFAR-supported Nigerian military health facilities. METHODS: We identified a set of IPC activities a priori for implementation at four Nigerian military hospitals in HIV and related departments in early 2021, including continuous medical masking, physical distancing, placement of additional hand washing stations and hand sanitizers throughout facilities, and training. We fine-tuned planned intervention activities through a baseline needs assessment conducted in December 2020 that covered eight IPC components: 'IPC program structure, funding and leadership engagement'; 'IPC policies, guidelines and standard operating procedures (SOPs)'; 'infrastructure'; 'triage and screening'; 'training, knowledge and practice'; 'personal protective equipment (PPE) materials, availability and adequacy'; 'biosafety and waste management'; and 'monitoring and remediation' prior to implementation. Baseline results were compared with those of a follow up assessment administered in August 2021, following intervention implementation. RESULTS: IPC readiness remained high at both baseline and follow-up assessments for 'IPC guidelines, policies, and SOPs' (96.7%). The components 'infrastructure' and 'monitoring and remediation', which needed improvement at baseline, saw modest improvements at follow-up, by 2% and 7.5%, respectively. At follow-up, declines from high scoring at baseline were seen in 'IPC program structure, funding and leadership engagement', 'training, knowledge and practice', and 'biosafety and waste management'. 'PPE materials availability and adequacy' improved to 88.9% at follow-up. Although unidirectional client flow was newly implemented, the score for 'triage and screening' did not change from baseline to follow-up (73%). CONCLUSION: Variability in IPC component readiness and across facilities highlights the importance of building resilience and employing a quality improvement approach to IPC that includes regular monitoring, re-assessment and re-training at set intervals. Results can be used to encourage solutions-oriented dialogue between staff and leadership, determine needs and implement action plans to protect staff and people with HIV.

Mortality Among Children Aged <5 Years Living with HIV Who Are Receiving Antiretroviral Treatment - U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, 28 Supported Countries and Regions, October 2020-September 2022.

Globally, children aged <5 years, including those living with HIV who are not receiving antiretroviral treatment (ART), experience disproportionately high mortality. Global mortality among children living with HIV aged <5 years receiving ART is not well described. This report compares mortality and related clinical measures among infants aged <1 year and children aged 1-4 years living with HIV with those among older persons aged 5-14, 15-49, and ≥50 years living with HIV receiving ART services at all clinical sites supported by the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. During October 2020-September 2022, an average of 11,980 infants aged <1 year and 105,510 children aged 1-4 years were receiving ART each quarter; among these infants and children receiving ART, 586 (4.9%) and 2,684 (2.5%), respectively, were reported to have died annually. These proportions of infants and children who died ranged from four to nine times higher in infants aged <1 year, and two to five times higher in children aged 1-4 years, than the proportions of older persons aged ≥5 years receiving ART. Compared with persons aged ≥5 years living with HIV, the proportions of children aged <5 years living with HIV who experienced interruptions in treatment were also higher, and the proportions who had a documented HIV viral load result or a suppressed viral load were lower. Prioritizing and optimizing HIV and general health services for children aged <5 years living with HIV receiving ART, including those recommended in the WHO STOP AIDS Package, might help address these disproportionately poorer outcomes.

Incident Kaposi sarcoma during the expansion of antiretroviral therapy eligibility in Nigeria: a retrospective cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: The expansion of antiretroviral therapy (ART) eligibility could lead to earlier initiation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) treatment and consequently reduce the risk of HIV-associated Kaposi Sarcoma (KS). We investigated the impact of changes in the Nigerian HIV treatment guidelines on KS incidence among adults enrolled in HIV care in Nigeria. METHODS: We analyzed data of adults who enrolled for HIV care from January 2006 to December 2016 at one of Nigeria's largest HIV treatment centers. Based on changes in HIV treatment guidelines, we classified 2006-2009 as the pre-expansion period and 2010-2016 as the post-expansion period. We used Kaplan Meier curves to compare the incidence of KS in the pre-expansion to the post-expansion period. We used Cox regression models to assess the hazard for incident KS between the two periods after adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: Among 14,479 patients with HIV, the overall KS incidence was 2.35; 95% CI 2.01-2.74/1,000 person-years. The incidence of KS decreased from 2.53 to 1.58 per 1,000 person-years from 2006 to 2009 to 2010-2016. In models adjusting for age, sex, CD4-T cell count, and ART use, the risk for KS remained lower in 2010-2016 compared to 2006-2009. In analyses restricted to time on ART, there was no significant difference in KS incidence between HIV patients who enrolled in 2006-2009 and 2010-2016 after adjusting for age, sex, and CD4 T-cell count. CONCLUSION: The expansion of ART eligibility was associated with a reduced incidence of HIV-associated KS among adults initiating HIV care in Jos, Nigeria. The reduction was likely driven by earlier enrollment for HIV care and ART initiation.

Factors Associated With Viral Suppression and Drug Resistance in Children and Adolescents Living With HIV in Care and Treatment Programs in Southern Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Achieving viral suppression (VS) for persons living with HIV is key to reaching epidemic control. We assessed the prevalence of VS and the frequency of HIV drug resistance mutations (HIVDRM) among children and adolescents living with HIV (CALHIV) in the Southern Highland zone of Tanzania. METHODS: From 2019 to 2021, we enrolled CALHIV aged 1-19 years on ART for >6 months in a cross-sectional study. Participants had viral load (VL) testing; those with VL ≥ 1000 copies/mL underwent HIVDRM testing. VS (<1000 copies/mL) prevalence estimates were calculated and robust Poisson regression was used to estimate prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for associations with potential predictors of VS. RESULTS: Of 707 participants, 595 had VS (PR: 0.84, 95% CI: 0.81-0.87). Use of an integrase strand transfer inhibitor-containing regimen (aPR 1.15, 95% CI: 0.99-1.34), age 5-9 years (aPR 1.16, 95% CI: 1.07-1.26), and seeking care at a referral center (aPR 1.12, 95% CI: 1.04-1.21) were associated with VS. Factors inversely associated with VS included having one (aPR 0.82, 95% CI: 0.72-0.92) or two or more (aPR 0.79, 95% CI: 0.66-0.94) referrals for adherence counselling, and self-reporting missing one to two (aPR 0.88, 95% CI: 0.78-0.99) or three or more (aPR 0.77, 95% CI: 0.63-0.92) doses of ART in the past month. Of 74 participants with PRRT and INT sequencing done, 60 (81.1%) had HIVDRMs at the following frequencies: 71.6%, 67.6%, 1.4%, and 4.1% for major NNRTI, NRTI, PI, and INSTI respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Higher rates of VS were observed in this cohort, and HIVDRMs were common in those without VS. This evidence supports ART optimization using dolutegravir-based regimens. However, better strategies to improve adherence are needed.

Effect of multi-month antiretroviral dispensing on HIV clinic attendance at 68 Nigerian Army Reference Hospital, Yaba, Nigeria.

Background: Multi-month dispensing (MMD) of antiretroviral therapy has demonstrated benefits for HIV patients and health service delivery systems, including reduced frequency of hospital visits and improved retention. We evaluated the effect of 6-monthly dispensing (MMD6) on patient clinic attendance at a single military facility in the one-year pre- and post-policy change.Methods: This was a descriptive, retrospective, cross-sectional study, exploring the relationship between MMD6 and clinic attendance numbers. We reviewed aggregate clinic attendance records for clients on ART and documented monthly trends in clinic attendance numbers, number of clients current on ART, and amount of ART dispensed.Results: In the pre-MMD6 group, 4 150 patients were included, and 4 190 in the post-MMD6 group. Clinic attendance was 30 407 visits (16 111 pre-MMD6 and 14 296 post-MMD6). An overall mean increase of 326.58 ± 861.81 (95% CI = -874.15 ± 220.98) drugs were dispensed per month; t(11) = -1.31, p = 0.22; mean monthly clinic attendance declined from 1342.8 ± 220.10 visits pre-MMD6 to 1191.33 ± 309.10 post-MMD6 with t(11) = 1.601, p = 0.14, but was not statistically significant.Conclusion: Six-monthly dispensing can be an important tool to reduce HIV clinic volumes and improve antiretroviral access. It is particularly important for care continuity in military facilities where service members may be deployed or transferred to other bases along with their dependents.

The effects of revised peer-counselor support on the PMTCT cascade of care: results from a cluster-randomized trial in Kenya (the EMMA study).

BACKGROUND: This study evaluated the effect of revisions to existing peer-counselor services, called Mentor Mothers (MM), at maternal and child health clinics on medication adherence for women living with HIV (WLWH) in Kenya and on early infant HIV testing. METHODS: The Enhanced Mentor Mother Program study was a 12-site, two-arm cluster-randomized trial enrolling pregnant WLWH from March 2017 to June 2018 (with data collection through September 2020). Six clinics were randomized to continued MM-supported standard care (SC). Six clinics were randomized to the intervention arm (INT = SC plus revised MM services to include more one-on-one interactions). Primary outcomes for mothers were defined as: (PO1) the proportion of days covered (PDC) with antiretroviral therapy (ART) ≥ 0.90 during the last 24-weeks of pregnancy; and (PO2) ≥ 0.90 PDC during the first 24-weeks postpartum. Secondary outcomes were infant HIV testing according to national guidelines (at 6, 24, and 48 weeks). Crude and adjusted risk differences between study arms are reported. RESULTS: We enrolled 363 pregnant WLHV. After excluding known transfers and subjects with incomplete data extraction, data were analyzed for 309 WLWH (151 SC, 158 INT). A small share achieved high PDC during the prenatal and postnatal periods (0.33 SC/0.24 INT achieved PO1; 0.30 SC/0.31 INT achieved PO2; crude or adjusted risk differences were not statistically significant). In addition, ~ 75% in both study arms completed viral load testing during year two after enrollment, with > 90% suppressed in both arms. For infants, ≥ 90% in both arms had at least one HIV test through study follow up (76 weeks) but testing on schedule according to PMTCT guidelines was uncommon. CONCLUSIONS: While national guidelines in Kenya recommended that all HIV-infected pregnant women take a daily antiretroviral regimen for life following a HIV diagnosis, results presented here indicate that a minor share achieved high medication coverage during the prenatal and postnatal periods analyzed. In addition, adjustments to Mentor-Mother services showed no improvement in study outcomes. The lack of effect for this behavioral intervention is relatively consistent with the existing literature to improve mother-infant outcomes along the PMTCT care cascade. CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER: NCT02848235. Date of first trial registration 28/07/2016.

Early warning indicators of HIV drug resistance in the southern highlands region of Tanzania: Lessons from a cross-sectional surveillance study.

The World Health Organization early warning indicators (EWIs) permit surveillance of factors associated with the emergence of HIV drug resistance (HIVDR). We examined cross- and within-region performance on HIVDR EWIs for selected HIV care and treatment clinics (CTCs) in five regions of southern Tanzania. We retrospectively abstracted EWI data from 50 CTCs for the January to December 2013 period. EWIs included the following: on time ART pick-up, retention on ART, ARV stockouts, and pharmacy prescribing and dispensing practices. Data for pediatric and adult people living with HIV were abstracted from source files, and frequencies and proportions were calculated for each EWI overall, as well as stratified by region, facility, and age group. Across and within all regions, on average, on-time pick-up of pills (63.0%), retention on ART (76.0%), and pharmacy stockouts (69.0%) were consistently poor for the pediatric population. Similarly, on-time pill pick up (66.0%), retention on ART (72.0%) and pharmacy stockouts (53.0%) for adults were also poor. By contrast, performance on pharmacy prescribing and dispensing practices were as desired for both pediatric and adult populations with few facility-level exceptions. In this study, regions and facilities in the southern highlands of Tanzania reported widespread presence of HIVDR risk factors, including sub-optimal timeliness of pill pickup, retention on ART, and drug stockouts. There is an urgent need to implement the WHO EWIs monitoring to minimize the emergence of preventable HIV drug resistance and to maintain the effectiveness of first and second-line ART regimens. This is particularly critical in the context of new ART drug roll-out such as dolutegravir during the COVID-19 pandemic when resultant HIV service disruptions require careful monitoring, and for virologic suppression as countries move closer to epidemic control.

The Status of Adolescent Testing and Treatment in PEPFAR-Supported Programs, October 2017 to September 2020.

BACKGROUND: Adolescents have poorer outcomes across the HIV cascade compared with adults. We aimed to assess progress in HIV case finding, antiretroviral treatment (ART), viral load coverage (VLC), and viral load suppression (VLS) among adolescents enrolled in the US President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)-supported programs over a 3-year period that included the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: We analyzed PEPFAR program data in 28 countries/regions for adolescents aged 10-19 years between year 1 (October 2017to September 2018), year 2 (October 2018 to September 2019), and year 3 (October 2019 to September 2020). We calculated the number and percent change for HIV tests, HIV-positive tests, and total number on ART. Calculated indicators included positivity, percent of positives newly initiated on ART (ART linkage), VLC (percent of ART patients on ART for ≥6 months with a documented viral load result within the past 12 months), and VLS (percent of viral load tests with <1000 copies/mL). RESULTS: Between years 1 and 3, the number of HIV tests conducted decreased by 44.2%, with a 29.1% decrease in the number of positive tests. Positivity increased from 1.3%-1.6%. The number of adolescents receiving ART increased by 10.4%. In addition, ART linkage increased (77.8%-86.7%) as did VLC (69.4%-79.4%) and VLS (72.8%-81.5%). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate PEPFAR's success in increasing the adolescent treatment cohort. We identified ongoing gaps in adolescent case finding, linkage, VLC, and VLS that could be addressed with a strategic mix of testing strategies, optimal ART regimens, and adolescent-focused service delivery models.

Molecular detection of hepatitis B virus genotype E with immune escape mutations in chronic hepatitis B patients on long-term antiviral therapy in Jos, Nigeria.

Background: Previous studies in Nigeria have reported the presence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotype E and the availability of immune escape mutants. There is a paucity of data on chronic patients on long-term antiviral therapy for HBV infection. Objective: This study assessed HBV genotypes and drug resistance variants among patients with chronic HBV infection receiving tenofovir in Jos, Nigeria. Methods: This cross-sectional study consecutively enrolled 101 patients (51 with HIV/HBV co-infection and 50 with HBV infection only) on antiviral therapy from February 2018 to May 2019 at four hospitals in Jos, Nigeria. DNA quantification of HBV was performed on all samples; 30 samples with detectable viral load were selected for genotyping using Sanger sequencing by targeting the full-length sequences of reverse transcriptase gene of the HBV genome. Phylogenetic analysis was performed with reference sequences from GenBank. Escape mutant and drug resistance analysis were performed using HBV drug resistance interpretation and Geno2pheno. Results: Only 30 (29.7%) of the 101 study participants had detectable HBV DNA. Of these, six (20.0%) isolates were successfully amplified and sequenced. The identified genotype was E, including escape mutations L127R (16.7%) and G145A (16.7%). Conclusion: This study revealed exclusive dominance of genotype E in Nigeria. The S gene mutations G145A and L271R are known to be associated with modified antigenicity and impaired serologic assays, which may cause false negatives in the detection of anti-HBV surface antigen. The presence of mutants that are associated with vaccine immune escape may also have diagnostic and vaccine immune response implications.

Transitioning women to first-line preferred TLD regimen is lagging in Sub-Saharan Africa.

INTRODUCTION: In 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-lamivudine-dolutegravir (TLD) as the preferred first line regimen for adults and adolescents regardless of childbearing status. Nevertheless, final eligibility is determined by local policies which may vary from WHO recommendations. We examined TLD transition by gender across five PEPFAR-supported HIV care programs in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: The African Cohort Study (AFRICOS) enrolls people living with HIV (PLWH) engaged in care in Uganda, Kenya (South Rift Valley and Kisumu West), Tanzania and Nigeria. PLWH with at least one study visit after the country introduced TLD were included. We generated Kaplan-Meier (KM) curves to compare TLD transition by gender from 1) time countries' introduction of TLD and 2) time of TLD eligibility according to local policies. RESULTS: Among 2.476 participants enrolled through September 2021 at 4 sites in sub-Saharan Africa and eligible to transition to TLD, fewer women (68%) compared to men (80%, p < 0.001) were taking TLD. Kaplan-Meier analysis showed time to transition varied by site, with women in Tanzania transitioning at the same rate as men. In Nigeria, women initially had a slower transition but caught up to men. After adjusting for local policies, women[1] in Kisumu West transitioned at the same rate as men. In South Rift Valley and Uganda, women were less likely to be transitioned. CONCLUSIONS: Despite TLD being the WHO's preferred regimen since 2019, transition of women to potentially lifesaving TLD has been slower than men at certain clinical sites even after accounting for local eligibility criteria.

Analyses of Kaposi Sarcoma trends among adults establishing initial outpatient HIV care in Nigeria: 2006-2017.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-associated Kaposi Sarcoma (KS) in the pre-antiretroviral therapy (ART) population remains high in several countries in sub-Saharan Africa. We examined trends of KS prevalence in adults, establishing initial outpatient HIV care from 2006 to 2017 in Nigeria. METHODS: We analyzed data of 16,431 adults (age ≥ 18 years) enrolled for HIV care from January 1, 2006, to December 31, 2017, in a large clinic in Jos, Nigeria. KS at enrollment was defined as KS recorded in the electronic health record within 30 days of clinic enrollment. Time trends were compared among four periods: 2006-2008, 2009-2011, 2012-2014, and 2015-2017 using logistic regression models. Annual trends were analyzed using join point regression and restricted splines. RESULTS: The study population had a mean age 35.1 (standard deviation, SD 9.5) years, and were 65.7% female (n = 10,788). The mean CD4 cell count was 220 (95% CI 117-223). The overall KS prevalence at entry was 0.59% (95% CI 0.48-0.72). Compared to 2006-2008, KS prevalence was significantly higher in 2009-2011 (adjusted odds ratio 5.07 (95% CI 3.12-8.24), p < 0.001), but remained unchanged in subsequent periods. Male sex and low CD4 T-cell count independently increased odds for KS. CONCLUSIONS: Despite ART expansion, KS at enrollment showed no significant decline. The low CD4 cell count, across all periods, indicates delay in enrollment for HIV care, which increases KS risk. Interventions aimed at early HIV diagnosis and linkage to ART is critical to KS risk reduction in this population.

Prevalence and Correlates of Viral Load Suppression and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Drug Resistance Among Children and Adolescents in South Rift Valley and Kisumu, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Children and adolescents living with HIV (CALHIV) face unique challenges, including poorer treatment outcomes, risk for drug-resistance mutations (HIVDRMs), and limited drug formulations. We estimated viral suppression (VS) prevalence and evaluated predictors of VS and HIVDRMs in Kenya. METHODS: From 2018-2020, CALHIV 1-19 years on antiretroviral therapy (ART) >6 months were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. Participants underwent viral load (VL) testing; those with VL ≥1000 copies/mL had HIVDRM testing. Sociodemographic questionnaires and medical record abstraction were completed. VS prevalence (VL <1000 copies/mL) was estimated; robust Poisson regression models were used to estimate prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95% CIs for associations between potential predictors of VS. RESULTS: Nine hundred and sixty-nine participants were enrolled. VS prevalence was .80 (95% CI: .78-.83). Being on ART >24 months (adjusted PR [aPR]: 1.22; 95% CI: 1.06-1.41), an integrase strand transfer inhibitor-containing regimen (1.13; 1.02-1.26), and attending a level 3 health facility (1.23; 1.11-1.36) were associated with VS. Missing ≥3 doses of ART in the past month (aPR: .73; 95% CI: .58-.92), having a viremic mother with HIV (.72; .53-.98), and having 3-7 (.90; .83-.97), 8-13 (.89; .82-.97), or ≥14 (.84; .77-.92) compared with <2 adherence counseling referrals were inversely associated with VS. A high proportion (n = 119, 81.5%) of unsuppressed participants had evidence of any major HIVDRM. CONCLUSIONS: HIV treatment programs should target interventions for pediatric patients at risk for treatment failure-namely, those with a caregiver with failed VS and those struggling with adherence.

The impact of COVID-19 on multi-month dispensing (MMD) policies for antiretroviral therapy (ART) and MMD uptake in 21 PEPFAR-supported countries: a multi-country analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Increasing access to multi-month dispensing (MMD) of antiretroviral therapy (ART) supports treatment continuity and viral load suppression for people living with HIV (PLHIV) and reduces burden on health facilities. During the COVID-19 response, PEPFAR worked with ministries of health to scale up MMD and expand eligibility to new groups of PLHIV, including children and pregnant/breastfeeding women. We analysed PEPFAR program data to understand the impact of the policy changes on actual practice. METHODS: We conducted a desk review in 21 PEPFAR-supported countries to identify and collect official documentation released between March and June 2020 addressing changes to MMD guidance during the COVID-19 response. MMD coverage, the proportion of all ART clients on MMD, was assessed in the calendar quarters preceding the COVID-19 response (Q4 2019, October-December 2019; and Q1, January-March 2020) and the quarters following the start of the response (Q2 2020, April-June 2020; Q3 2020, July-September, 2020; Q4 2020, October-December 2020). We used the two-proportion Z-test to test for differences in MMD coverage pre-COVID-19 (Q4 2019) and during implementation of COVID-19 policy adaptations (Q2 2020). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: As of June 2020, 16 of the 21 PEPFAR-supported countries analysed adapted MMD policy or promoted intensified scale-up of MMD in response to COVID-19. MMD coverage for all clients on ART grew from 49% in Q4 2019 pre-COVID-19 to 72% in Q2 2020 during COVID-19; among paediatric clients (< 15), MMD coverage increased from 27% to 51% in the same period. Adaptations to MMD policy were associated with a significantly accelerated growth in the proportion of clients on MMD (p < 0.001) for all populations, irrespective of age and dispensing interval. CONCLUSIONS: Access to MMD markedly expanded during the COVID-19 pandemic, supporting treatment continuity while mitigating exposure to COVID-19 at health facilities. This model is beneficial in public health emergencies and during disruptions to the healthcare system. Outside emergency contexts, expanded MMD eligibility extends client-centred care to previously excluded populations. The success in expanding MMD access during COVID-19 should motivate countries to recommend broader MMD access as a new standard of care.

HBV co-infection is associated with persistently elevated liver stiffness measurement in HIV-positive adults: A 6-year single-centre cohort study in Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: In Nigeria, the effect of Hepatitis B virus (HBV) on long-term liver outcomes in persons with HIV (PLH) has not been described. We determined changes in liver stiffness measure (LSM) using transient elastography over 6 years in HIV mono-infected and HIV-HBV co-infected Nigerians initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) and factors associated with LSM decline. METHODS: This single centre, cohort study enrolled ART-naïve HIV mono- and HIV-HBV co-infected adults (≥18 years) at the APIN Public Health Initiatives-supported HIV Care and Treatment Centre at Jos University Teaching Hospital, Nigeria, from 7/2011 to 2/2012. LSM at baseline, Years 3 and 6 were analysed using longitudinal models to estimate changes over time and their predictors. RESULTS: Data from 100 (31%) HIV-HBV co-infected and 225 (69%) HIV mono-infected participants were analysed. Median LSM at baseline was 6.10 (IQR: 4.60-7.90) kPa in co-infected and 5.10 (IQR: 4.40-6.10) kPa in mono-infected participants. In adjusted analyses, average LSM was not significantly different between Year 0 and 3 (ß = 0.02, -0.22 to 0.26, p = 0.87 and Year 0 and 6 (ß = -0.02, -0.23 to 0.27, p = 0.88) in both groups (p>0.05), but co-infected participants had significantly higher LSM than mono-infected throughout follow-up (ß = 0.018, 0.019-0.28, p < 0.001). Year 3 LSM differed according to ART initiation status by Year 3 (initiators - non-initiators: -0.87, -1.70 to -0.29). CONCLUSION: In this cohort, LSM remained higher among HIV-HBV co-infected versus HIV mono-infected participants throughout follow-up. Our findings emphasize the continuing need for monitoring of liver outcomes in HIV-HBV co-infected populations on ART and the importance of preventing HBV infection among PLH to optimize liver health.

Attaining 95-95-95 through Implementation Science: 15 Years of Insights and Best Practices from the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research's Implementation of the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief.

The Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR) supports more than 350,000 people on lifesaving HIV treatment in Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda through funding from the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). Here, we review and synthesize the range of impacts WRAIR's implementation science portfolio has had on PEPFAR service delivery for military and civilian populations since 2003. We also explore how investments in implementation science create institutional synergies within the U.S. Department of Defense, contributing to broad global health engagements and improving health outcomes for populations served. Finally, we discuss WRAIR's contributions to PEPFAR priorities through use of data to drive and improve programming in real time in the era of HIV epidemic control and public health messaging that includes prevention, the 95-95-95 goals, and comorbidities.

Longitudinal evaluation of adherence, retention, and transition patterns of adolescents living with HIV in Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION: Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) and retention in treatment programs are required for successful virologic suppression and treatment outcomes. As the number of adolescents living with HIV continues to increase globally, more information about adherence and retention patterns during and through transition from child- to adult-centered care is needed to ensure provision of a high level of care and inform development of targeted interventions to improve patient outcomes in this vulnerable population. In this analysis, we sought to describe long-term trends in adherence, retention, and virologic suppression in adolescents receiving ART at a pediatric HIV clinic in Nigeria through transition to the adult clinic. SETTING: The Jos University Teaching Hospital, United States President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)-funded HIV clinic in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective observational longitudinal evaluation of data that had been collected during the course of care in a large pediatric ART program in Nigeria. We used descriptive statistics to define our patient population and quantify retention from ART initiation through adolescence and transition to adult-centered care. Logistic regression was used to evaluate predictors of loss to follow-up. We used medication possession ratio (MPR) to quantify adherence for each year a patient was on ART. To evaluate adherence and virologic suppression, we measured the proportion of patients with ≥95% MPR and the proportion with virologic suppression (viral load ≤400 copies/mL) within each age cohort, and used bivariate analyses to examine any association between MPR and VL suppression for all person-years observed. RESULTS: A total of 476 patients received at least one dose of ART as an adolescent (ages 10-19 years). The proportions of patients lost to follow-up were: 11.9% (71/597) prior to adolescence, 19.1% (31/162) during adolescence, and 13.7% (10/73) during transition to adult-centered care. While over 80% of patients had ≥95% medication adherence in all age groups, their viral load suppression rates through adolescence and post-transition were only 55.6%-64.0%. For patients that successfully transitioned to adult-centered care, we observed 87.7% (50/57) retention at month 12 post-transition, but only 34.6% (9/26) viral load suppression. CONCLUSIONS: Our evaluation found considerable proportions of adolescents lost to follow-up throughout the ART program cascade. We also found discrepancies between the proportions of patients with ≥95% MPR and the proportions with VL suppression, suggesting that true medication adherence in this population may be poor. Significant attention and targeted interventions to improve retention and adherence focused on adolescents are needed in order for global programs to achieve 90-90-90 goals.

Effect of Baseline Symptom Manifestations on Retention in Care and Treatment among HIV-Infected Patients in Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Symptom management is an important component of HIV care. But symptom patterns and how they affect engagement with HIV care and treatment services have not been adequately explored in the era of increased HIV treatment scale-up. We investigated the relationship between symptom patterns among people living with HIV (PLHIV) and 12 months retention in care, within the context of other clinical and demographic characteristics. METHODS: Retrospective cohort analysis of 5114 PLHIV receiving care within a large HIV treatment program in Nigeria. We assessed the prevalence and burden of baseline symptoms reported during routine clinic visits from January 2015 to December 2017. Multivariable regression was used to identify relationships between 12-month retention and symptom dimensions (prevalence and burden) while controlling for demographic and other clinical variables. RESULTS: Increasing symptom burden was associated with higher likelihood of retention at 12 months (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.19 [95% confidence interval, CI: 1.09-1.29]; P < .001) as was the reporting of skin rashes/itching symptom (aOR = 2.59 [95% CI: 1.65-4.09]; P < .001). Likelihood of retention reduced with increasing World Health Organization (WHO) Clinical staging, with CD4 ≥500 cells/mL and self-reported heterosexual mode of HIV transmission. Conclusions: Symptom dimensions and standardized clinical/immunological measures both predicted retention in care, but effects differed in magnitude and direction. Standardized clinical/immunological measures in HIV care (eg, WHO clinical staging and CD4 count categories) can mask important differences in how PLHIVs experience symptoms and, therefore, their engagement with HIV care and treatment. Symptom management strategies are required alongside antiretroviral treatment to improve outcomes among PLHIV, including retention in care.

Epidemiologic and viral predictors of antiretroviral drug resistance among persons living with HIV in a large treatment program in Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Expanded access to combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) throughout sub-Saharan Africa over the last decade has remarkably improved the prognosis of persons living with HIV (PLWH). However, some PLWH experience virologic rebound after a period of viral suppression, usually followed by selection of drug resistant virus. Determining factors associated with drug resistance can inform patient management and healthcare policies, particularly in resource-limited settings where drug resistance testing is not routine. METHODS: A case-control study was conducted using data captured from an electronic medical record in a large treatment program in Nigeria. Cases PLWH receiving cART who developed acquired drug resistance (ADR) and controls were those without ADR between 2004 and 2011. Each case was matched to up to 2 controls by sex, age, and education. Logistic regression was used estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for factors associated with ADR. RESULTS: We evaluated 159 cases with ADR and 299 controls without ADR. In a multivariate model, factors associated with ADR included older age (OR = 2.35 [age 30-40 years 95% CI 1.29, 4.27], age 41 + years OR = 2.31 [95% CI 1.11, 4.84], compared to age 17-30), higher education level (secondary OR 2.14 [95% CI 1.1.11-4.13]), compared to primary and tertiary), non-adherence to care (OR = 2.48 [95% CI 1.50-4.00]), longer treatment duration (OR = 1.80 [95% CI 1.37-2.35]), lower CD4 count((OR = 0.95 [95% CI 0.95-0.97]) and higher viral load (OR = 1.97 [95% CI 1.44-2.54]). CONCLUSIONS: Understanding these predictors may guide programs in developing interventions to identify patients at risk of developing ADR and implementing prevention strategies.

Absence of human leukocyte antigen-B*57:01 amongst patients on antiretroviral therapy in Nigeria: Implications for use of abacavir.

Background: The presence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) B*57:01 allele predicts hypersensitivity reaction (HSR) to abacavir (ABC), a nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor used for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) treatment. However, the prevalence of this allele amongst Nigerians with HIV is yet to be established. We aimed to determine the prevalence of HLA-B*57:01 allele amongst Nigerians with HIV infection. Methods: We conducted a multicentre cross-sectional epidemiologic survey. Between April 2016 and April 2017, patients were enrolled across five HIV treatment facilities in Nigeria. Participants' demographic information and their history of ABC exposure were obtained, and venous blood was obtained for HLA typing. Results: One thousand five hundred and four (1504) adults were enrolled, with a mean age of 44.6 ± 10.7 years, 1078 (71.7%) were female. 1463 (97.3%) were on antiretroviral therapy. ABC use was reported by 12 (0.8%) participants and none reported HSR. Of 1500 blood samples that were processed, 1458 (97.2%) were successfully typed. Of these, 132 (9.1%) were HLA-B*57 positive using non-specific low-resolution HLA-B*5701 primer mix. On further analysis, none of the 132 samples (0%) had the HLA-B*5701 allele. Conclusion: HLA-B*5701allele is rare amongst Nigerians.

Changes in liver stiffness after ART initiation in HIV-infected Nigerian adults with and without chronic HBV.

BACKGROUND: There are limited data from sub-Saharan Africa on long-term liver fibrosis changes in HIV- and HIV/HBV-infected individuals. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of ART on liver stiffness measurement (LSM) using transient elastography (TE) in HIV- and HIV/HBV-infected Nigerian adults and examine factors associated with fibrosis regression. METHODS: We included ART-naive HIV- and HIV/HBV-infected adults (≥18 years) enrolled in a prospective, longitudinal study of liver disease between July 2011 and February 2015 at Jos University Teaching Hospital HIV Care and Treatment Centre in Nigeria. Patients initiated ART and had TE at baseline and follow-up (year 3). LSM cut-offs for Metavir scores were 5.9, 7.6 and 9.4 kPa for moderate fibrosis, advanced fibrosis and cirrhosis, respectively. We used multivariable regression to identify factors associated with TE (≥1 Metavir) stage decline. RESULTS: A total of 106 HIV- and 71 HIV/HBV-infected patients [70.5% female and median age = 34 years (IQR = 29-42 years)] were studied. Baseline LSM and median LSM decline were significantly higher in HIV/HBV- versus HIV-infected patients; 41% of HIV/HBV-infected patients regressed ≥1 Metavir stage versus 17% of HIV-infected patients (P < 0.01); LSM scores at year 3 were not significantly different between HIV- and HIV/HBV-infected patients. In multivariable analyses, patients with baseline CD4+ T cells ≥200 (versus <200) cells/mm3 and lower BMIs were more likely to experience LSM stage decline. CONCLUSIONS: HBV coinfection does not attenuate LSM declines in HIV-infected patients after ART initiation despite being a risk factor for more advanced liver disease prior to therapy. The inverse association between BMI and TE stage decline needs further investigation.