[Automated surveillance and risk prediction with the aim of risk-stratified infection control and prevention (RISK PRINCIPE)]. / Automatisierte Surveillance und Risikovorhersage mit dem Ziel einer risikostratifizierten Infektionskontrolle und -prävention (RISK Prediction for Risk-stratified Infection Control and Prevention).

Healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs) represent an enormous burden for patients, healthcare workers, relatives and society worldwide, including Germany. The central tasks of infection prevention are recording and evaluating infections with the aim of identifying prevention potential and risk factors, taking appropriate measures and finally evaluating them. From an infection prevention perspective, it would be of great value if (i) the recording of infection cases was automated and (ii) if it were possible to identify particularly vulnerable patients and patient groups in advance, who would benefit from specific and/or additional interventions.To achieve this risk-adapted, individualized infection prevention, the RISK PRINCIPE research project develops algorithms and computer-based applications based on standardised, large datasets and incorporates expertise in the field of infection prevention.The project has two objectives: a) to develop and validate a semi-automated surveillance system for hospital-acquired bloodstream infections, prototypically for HCAI, and b) to use comprehensive patient data from different sources to create an individual or group-specific infection risk profile.RISK PRINCIPE is based on bringing together the expertise of medical informatics and infection medicine with a focus on hygiene and draws on information and experience from two consortia (HiGHmed and SMITH) of the German Medical Informatics Initiative (MII), which have been working on use cases in infection medicine for more than five years.

Surveillance of infections of surgical sites and lower respiratory tracts should be combined: experiences from the German surveillance module for operated patients (OP-KISS), 2018 to 2022.

BackgroundSurveillance of lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) of operated patients conventionally focuses on intubated patients in intensive care units (ICU). Post-operative immobilisation increases the risk of LRTI not associated with ventilators. Operated patients, however, have thus far not been a primary target for LRTI surveillance.AimWe aimed to describe the applied LRTI surveillance method in the German surveillance module for operated patients (OP-KISS) and to report data between 2018 and 2022.MethodsSurveillance of LRTI can be performed voluntarily in addition to surgical site infection (SSI) surveillance in OP-KISS. We calculated LRTI rates per 100 operations for all procedures combined, as well as for individual surgical groups and procedures. Additionally, a combined post-operative infection rate (SSI and LRTI) was calculated.ResultsSurveillance of LRTI was performed in 4% of all participating OP-KISS departments and for 2% (23,239 of 1,332,438) of all procedures in the OP-KISS database. The pooled LRTI rate was 0.9 per 100 operations, with marked differences between different types of surgery (3.6 for lobectomies, 0.1 for traumatology and orthopaedics). The share of LRTI among all post-operative infections was highly variable. For lobectomies, the LRTI rate was higher than the SSI rate (3.6 vs 1.5 per 100 operations).ConclusionSurveillance of post-operative LRTI is not yet widely adopted by German hospitals. Based on the data in this study, lobectomies represent a prime target for post-operative LRTI surveillance.

Healthcare-Associated Infections and the Use of Antibiotics in German Hospitals­Results of the Point Prevalence Survey of 2022 and Comparison With Earlier Findings.

BACKGROUND: A national point prevalence survey (PPS) of healthcare-associated infections (HAI) and antibiotic use (AU) was carried out in Germany in 2022 in the framework of the European PPS conducted by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). The objective was to determine the prevalence of HAI and AU in German hospitals and to compare the obtained values with those of the most recent previous PPS, which was carried out in 2016. METHODS: The German National Reference Center for the Surveillance of Nosocomial Infections was entrusted with the organization of the PPS of 2022. As recommended by the ECDC, each hospital in a representative sample of 50 hospitals was invited to participate, and all other interested hospitals in Germany were also able to participate if desired. The data were collected by specially trained hospital staff in May, June, and July 2022. The definitions and methods put forth by the ECDC were used. RESULTS: Data from 66 586 patients in 252 hospitals were included. The prevalence of HAI in all participating hospitals was 4.9%, and that of AU was 26.9%. The HAI and AU prevalences were essentially unchanged in comparison to 2016. The most common types of HAI were surgical site infection (23.5%), lower respiratory tract infection (21.6%), and urinary tract infection (19.0%). CONCLUSION: HAI were just as frequent in 2022 as in 2016, affecting approximately one in twenty hospitalized patients on any given day.

Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis­Indications and Modalities for the Prevention of Postoperative Wound Infection.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative surgical site infections (SSI) account for almost 25% of all nosocomial infections in Germany and are a source of increased morbidity and mortality. METHODS: This review is based on pertinent publications retrieved by a selective search in PubMed and on national and international guidelines. RESULTS: The individual risk factors for SSI must be assessed before any surgical procedure. A body-mass index above 30 kg/m2 is associated with an unadjusted risk ratio of 1.35 [1.28; 1.41] for SSI, which rises to 3.29 [2.99; 3.62] if the patient is also immunosuppressed. The risk of SSI is also significantly higher with certain types of procedure. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis (PAP) is clearly indicated for operations that carry a high risk of SSI (e.g., colorectal surgery) and for those that involve the implantation of alloplastic material (e.g., hip endoprostheses). PAP can usually be administered with basic antibiotics such as cefazoline. The basic principles of PAP are that it should be given by the anesthesia team in the interval from 60 minutes preoperatively up to shortly before the incision, and that its administration should only be for a short period of time, usually as a single shot. Continuing PAP onward into the postoperative period leads to increased toxicity, bacterial superinfections, and antibiotic resistance. CONCLUSION: The evidence shows that perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis is a component of a bundle of measures that can help prevent SSI. Strict indications and adherence to the basic principles of PAP are essential for therapeutic success.

Risk factors for transmission of carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in outbreak situations: results of a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: An increase in patients with multidrug-resistant organisms and associated outbreaks during the COVID-19 pandemic have been reported in various settings, including low-endemic settings. Here, we report three distinct carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB) outbreaks in five intensive care units of a university hospital in Berlin, Germany during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: A case-control study was conducted with the objective of identifying risk factors for CRAB acquisition in outbreak situations. Data utilized for the case-control study came from the investigation of three separate CRAB outbreaks during the COVID-19 pandemic (August 2020- March 2021). Cases were defined as outbreak patients with hospital-acquired CRAB. Controls did not have any CRAB positive microbiological findings and were hospitalized at the same ward and for a similar duration as the respective case. Control patients were matched retrospectively in a 2:1 ratio. Parameters routinely collected in the context of outbreak management and data obtained retrospectively specifically for the case-control study were included in the analysis. To analyze risk factors for CRAB acquisition, univariable and multivariable analyses to calculate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were performed using a conditional logistic regression model. RESULTS: The outbreaks contained 26 cases with hospital-acquired CRAB in five different intensive care units. Two exposures were identified to be independent risk factors for nosocomial CRAB acquisition by the multivariable regression analysis: Sharing a patient room with a CRAB patient before availability of the microbiological result was associated with a more than tenfold increase in the risk of nosocomial CRAB acquisition (OR: 10.7, CI: 2.3-50.9), while undergoing bronchoscopy increased the risk more than six times (OR: 6.9, CI: 1.3-38.1). CONCLUSIONS: The risk factors identified, sharing a patient room with a CRAB patient and undergoing bronchoscopy, could point to an underperformance of basic infection control measure, particularly hand hygiene compliance and handling of medical devices. Both findings reinforce the need for continued promotion of infection control measures. Given that the outbreaks occurred in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, our study serves as a reminder that a heightened focus on airborne precautions should not lead to a neglect of other transmission-based precautions.

Surgical site infection surveillance in German hospitals: a national survey to determine the status quo of digitalization.

BACKGROUND: Surveillance of surgical site infections (SSI) relies on access to data from various sources. Insights into the practices of German hospitals conducting SSI surveillance and their information technology (IT) infrastructures are scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate current SSI surveillance practices in German hospitals with a focus on employed IT infrastructures. METHODS: German surgical departments actively participating in the national SSI surveillance module "OP-KISS" were invited in August 2020 to participate in a questionnaire-based online survey. Depending on whether departments entered all data manually or used an existing feature to import denominator data into the national surveillance database, departments were separated into different groups. Selected survey questions differed between groups. RESULTS: Of 1,346 invited departments, 821 participated in the survey (response rate: 61%). Local IT deficits (n = 236), incompatibility of import specifications and hospital information system (n = 153) and lack of technical expertise (n = 145) were cited as the most frequent reasons for not using the denominator data import feature. Conversely, reduction of workload (n = 160) was named as the main motivation to import data. Questions on data availability and accessibility in the electronic hospital information system (HIS) and options to export data from the HIS for the purpose of surveillance, yielded diverse results. Departments utilizing the import feature tended to be from larger hospitals with a higher level of care. CONCLUSIONS: The degree to which digital solutions were employed for SSI surveillance differed considerably between surgical departments in Germany. Improving availability and accessibility of information in HIS and meeting interoperability standards will be prerequisites for increasing the amount of data exported directly from HIS to national databases and laying the foundation for automated SSI surveillance on a broad scale.

Age as a risk factor for surgical site infections: German surveillance data on total hip replacement and total knee replacement procedures 2009 to 2018.

BackgroundOlder age is frequently cited as a risk factor for healthcare-associated infections in general, and surgical site infections (SSIs) specifically.AimWe aimed to investigate the correlation between age and SSI occurrence.MethodsData on total hip replacement (THR) and total knee replacement (TKR) surgeries and resulting SSIs documented in the German national surveillance network from a 10-year period from 2009 to 2018 were selected for analysis. SSI rates and adjusted odds ratios (AOR) were calculated and a multivariable analysis to determine risk factors for SSI occurrence was conducted.ResultsA total of 418,312 THR procedures resulting in 3,231 SSIs, and 286,074 TKR procedures with 1,288 SSIs were included in the analyses. For THR, SSI rates were higher in older age groups when compared with the reference age group of 61-65 years. A significantly higher risk was observed in the 76-80 years age group (AOR: 1.21, 95% CI: 1.05-1.4). An age of ≤ 50 years was associated with a significantly lower SSI risk (AOR: 0.64, 95% CI: 0.52-0.8). For TKR, a similar correlation was observed, with the exception of the youngest age group (≤ 52 years), which was shown to have an SSI risk equal to that of the knee prosthesis reference age group (78-82 years).ConclusionA strong correlation between increasing age and SSI occurrence was observed for both procedure types. The results of our analyses provide a basis to consider future targeted SSI prevention measures for different age groups.

Risk factors for nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infections in patients: results from a retrospective matched case-control study in a tertiary care university center.

BACKGROUND: Factors contributing to the spread of SARS-CoV-2 outside the acute care hospital setting have been described in detail. However, data concerning risk factors for nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infections in hospitalized patients remain scarce. To close this research gap and inform targeted measures for the prevention of nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infections, we analyzed nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 cases in our hospital during a defined time period. METHODS: Data on nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infections in hospitalized patients that occurred between May 2020 and January 2021 at Charité university hospital in Berlin, Germany, were retrospectively gathered. A SARS-CoV-2 infection was considered nosocomial if the patient was admitted with a negative SARS-CoV-2 reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction test and subsequently tested positive on day five or later. As the incubation period of SARS-CoV-2 can be longer than five days, we defined a subgroup of "definite" nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 cases, with a negative test on admission and a positive test after day 10, for which we conducted a matched case-control study with a one to one ratio of cases and controls. We employed a multivariable logistic regression model to identify factors significantly increasing the likelihood of nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infections. RESULTS: A total of 170 patients with a nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infection were identified. The majority of nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 patients (n = 157, 92%) had been treated at wards that reported an outbreak of nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 cases during their stay or up to 14 days later. For 76 patients with definite nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infections, controls for the case-control study were matched. For this subgroup, the multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed documented contact to SARS-CoV-2 cases (odds ratio: 23.4 (95% confidence interval: 4.6-117.7)) and presence at a ward that experienced a SARS-CoV-2 outbreak (odds ratio: 15.9 (95% confidence interval: 2.5-100.8)) to be the principal risk factors for nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infection. CONCLUSIONS: With known contact to SARS-CoV-2 cases and outbreak association revealed as the primary risk factors, our findings confirm known causes of SARS-CoV-2 infections and demonstrate that these also apply to the acute care hospital setting. This underscores the importance of rapidly identifying exposed patients and taking adequate preventive measures.

Implementation of an automated cluster alert system into the routine work of infection control and hospital epidemiology: experiences from a tertiary care university hospital.

BACKGROUND: Early detection of clusters of pathogens is crucial for infection prevention and control (IPC) in hospitals. Conventional manual cluster detection is usually restricted to certain areas of the hospital and multidrug resistant organisms. Automation can increase the comprehensiveness of cluster surveillance without depleting human resources. We aimed to describe the application of an automated cluster alert system (CLAR) in the routine IPC work in a hospital. Additionally, we aimed to provide information on the clusters detected and their properties. METHODS: CLAR was continuously utilized during the year 2019 at Charité university hospital. CLAR analyzed microbiological and patient-related data to calculate a pathogen-baseline for every ward. Daily, this baseline was compared to data of the previous 14 days. If the baseline was exceeded, a cluster alert was generated and sent to the IPC team. From July 2019 onwards, alerts were systematically categorized as relevant or non-relevant at the discretion of the IPC physician in charge. RESULTS: In one year, CLAR detected 1,714 clusters. The median number of isolates per cluster was two. The most common cluster pathogens were Enterococcus faecium (n = 326, 19 %), Escherichia coli (n = 274, 16 %) and Enterococcus faecalis (n = 250, 15 %). The majority of clusters (n = 1,360, 79 %) comprised of susceptible organisms. For 906 alerts relevance assessment was performed, with 317 (35 %) alerts being classified as relevant. CONCLUSIONS: CLAR demonstrated the capability of detecting small clusters and clusters of susceptible organisms. Future improvements must aim to reduce the number of non-relevant alerts without impeding detection of relevant clusters. Digital solutions to IPC represent a considerable potential for improved patient care. Systems such as CLAR could be adapted to other hospitals and healthcare settings, and thereby serve as a means to fulfill these potentials.

Increase in surgical site infections caused by gram-negative bacteria in warmer temperatures: Results from a retrospective observational study.

OBJECTIVE: Surgical site infections (SSIs) occur more frequently during periods of warmer temperatures. We aimed to investigate for which pathogens this association is particularly strong. DESIGN: A retrospective observational study was conducted. METHODS: Data from the SSI-module of the German nosocomial infection surveillance system between 2000 and 2016 were linked with data from the German Meteorological Service. Patient- and procedure-related data were associated with monthly aggregated meteorological data. Due to high correlation with other meteorological parameters, we focused on the outside temperature. Adjusted odds ratios were calculated for SSI rates relating to temperature. SSIs were stratified by pathogen. A P value of <.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: Altogether, 2,004,793 procedures resulting in 32,118 SSIs were included. Generally, warmer temperatures were associated with a higher SSI risk, especially for SSIs with gram-negative pathogens. This association was particularly prominent for Acinetobacter spp, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and certain Enterobacteriaceae. Per additional 1°C, we observed a 6% increase in the SSI risk for Acinetobacter spp and a 4% increase for Enterobacter spp. Superficial SSIs with Acinetobacter spp were 10 times more likely to occur when comparing surgeries in months with mean temperatures of ≥20°C to mean temperatures of <5°C. CONCLUSIONS: Higher temperatures were associated with increased SSI rates caused by gram-negative bacteria. Future SSI prevention measures should consider this aspect. Underlying shifts in microbiome composition due to climate factors should be included in further analyses. Given the expected rise of global temperatures until the end of the century, this topic has relevance from multiple perspectives.

SARS-Coronavirus-2 cases in healthcare workers may not regularly originate from patient care: lessons from a university hospital on the underestimated risk of healthcare worker to healthcare worker transmission.

BACKGROUND: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) represents an unprecedented healthcare challenge. Various SARS-CoV-2 outbreaks in healthcare facilities have been reported. Healthcare workers (HCWs) may play a critical role in the spread of the virus, particularly when asymptomatic. We examined four healthcare-associated outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 infections that occurred at a university hospital in Berlin, Germany. We aimed to describe and analyze the spread of the virus in order to draw conclusions for effective containment of SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare facilities. METHODS: Healthcare-associated outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 infections were defined as two or more laboratory confirmed infections with SARS-CoV-2 where an epidemiological link within the healthcare setting appeared likely. We focused our analysis on one of three sites of the Charité-University Medicine hospital within a 2 month period (March and April 2020). RESULTS: We observed four healthcare-associated outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 infections, with a total of 24 infected persons (23 HCWs and one patient). The outbreaks were detected in the departments of nephrology and dialysis (n = 9), anesthesiology (n = 8), surgical pediatrics (n = 4), and neurology (n = 3). Each outbreak showed multiple unprotected contacts between infected HCWs. A combination of contact tracing, testing, physical distancing and mandatory continuous wearing of face masks by all HCWs was able to contain all four outbreaks. CONCLUSIONS: HCW to HCW transmission represented the likely source of the four outbreaks. Ensuring proper physical distancing measures and wearing of protective equipment, also when interacting with colleagues, must be a key aspect of fighting COVID-19 in healthcare facilities.

A multimodal intervention to improve hand hygiene compliance in peripheral wards of a tertiary care university centre: a cluster randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Interventions to improve hand hygiene (HH) compliance are a key element in the practice infection prevention and control. It was our objective to assess the effect of a multimodal intervention on HH compliance at a tertiary care university hospital. As a secondary objective, we investigated the effect of the intervention on the occurrence of device-associated bloodstream infections. METHODS: We performed a single centre cluster randomised controlled trial at a university hospital in Germany. Twenty peripheral wards were invited to participate and randomly assigned to either the intervention (n = 10) or control group (n = 10). Quarterly, specifically trained student employees conducted direct compliance observations in all twenty wards. The intervention entailed dissemination of teaching materials on aseptic procedures, equipment with flexibly mountable alcoholic hand rub dispensers, and quarterly feedback on HH compliance. RESULTS: In total, 21,424 HH opportunities were observed. Overall, compliance did not change significantly in either group (intervention group: 59% vs. 61% (1482 HH actions for 2494 HH opportunities vs. 5033 HH actions for 8215 HH opportunities), odds ratio (OR) 1.08 (95% confidence interval (CI95) 0.88, 1.33)); control group: 59% vs. 60% (1457 HH actions for 2484 HH opportunities vs. 4948 HH actions for 8231 HH opportunities), OR 1.06 (CI95 0.84, 1.35)). Compliance prior to aseptic procedures improved significantly in the intervention group from 44% (168 HH actions for 380 HH opportunities) to 53% (764 HH actions for 1452 HH opportunities) (OR 1.40 (CI95 1.04, 1.89), p = 0.03), while no significant increase was noted in the control group. In the intervention group, significantly fewer device-associated bloodstream infections per 1000 patient-days occurred than in the control group (84 vs. 123, incidence rate ratio 0.61 (CI95 0.46, 0.81), p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The lack of a significant overall improvement of HH compliance demonstrated that comprehensive implementation of HH interventions in multiple wards simultaneously is difficult. However, through targeted intervention measures, we were able to significantly increase HH compliance before aseptic procedures.

Evaluating infection prevention and control programs in Austrian acute care hospitals using the WHO Infection Prevention and Control Assessment Framework.

BACKGROUND: Infection prevention and control (IPC) is crucial for patient safety. The World Health Organization (WHO) has released various tools to promote IPC. In 2018, the WHO released the Infection Prevention and Control Assessment Framework (IPCAF) that enables acute care healthcare facilities to evaluate IPC structures and practices. Data regarding IPC implementation in Austria are scarce. To deliver insights into this topic and promote the IPCAF within the Austrian IPC community, we decided to invite all Austrian hospitals participating in the German nosocomial infection surveillance system to conduct a self-assessment using the WHO IPCAF. METHODS: The IPCAF follows the eight WHO core components of IPC. A German translation of the IPCAF was sent to 127 Austrian acute care hospitals. The survey period was from October to December 2018. Participation in the survey, data entry and transfer to the German national reference center for surveillance of healthcare-associated infections was on a voluntary basis. RESULTS: Altogether, 65 Austrian hospitals provided a complete dataset. The overall median IPCAF score of all hospitals was 620 (of a possible maximum score of 800), which corresponded to an advanced level of IPC. Of the 65 hospitals, 38 achieved an advanced IPC level. Deeper analysis of the different core components yielded diverse results. Scores were lowest for core components on multimodal strategies for implementation of IPC interventions, and IPC education and training. Around 26% (n = 17) of hospitals reported that the local IPC team was not steadily supported by an IPC committee. Senior clinical staff was not present in the IPC committee in 23% (n = 15) of hospitals. Only 26% (n = 17) of hospitals reported employing at least one IPC professional per ≤250 beds. Surveillance for multidrug-resistant pathogens was not conducted in 26% (n = 17) of hospitals. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of IPC key aspects is generally at a high level in Austria. However, potentials for improvement were demonstrated, most prominently with regard to staffing, IPC education and training, effective implementation of multimodal strategies, and involvement of professional groups. Our survey demonstrated that the IPCAF is a useful tool for IPC self-assessment and can uncover deficits even in a high-income setting like Austria.

Redundant Anaerobic Antimicrobial Prescriptions in German Acute Care Hospitals: Data from a National Point Prevalence Survey.

Despite limited indications, redundant anaerobic antimicrobial prescriptions (RAAPs) are frequent. The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence and characteristics of RAAPs in German acute care hospitals. In a retrospective data analysis, antimicrobial prescriptions from a point prevalence survey on antimicrobial use in German acute care hospitals in 2016 were analyzed and RAAPs were identified. RAAPs were defined as a patient simultaneously receiving any of the following combinations: Penicillin/beta-lactamase inhibitor (PenBLI) plus clindamycin; PenBLI plus metronidazole; PenBLI plus moxifloxacin; PenBLI plus carbapenem; carbapenem plus clindamycin; carbapenem plus metronidazole; carbapenem plus moxifloxacin; clindamycin plus metronidazole; clindamycin plus moxifloxacin; and metronidazole plus moxifloxacin. Data from 64,412 patients in 218 hospitals were included. Overall, 4486 patients (7%) received two or more antimicrobials. In total, 441 RAAP combinations were identified. PenBLI plus metronidazole was the most common anaerobic combination (N = 166, 38%). The majority of RAAPs were for the treatment of community-acquired (N = 258, 59%) infections. Lower respiratory tract infections (N = 77; 20%) and skin/soft tissue infections (N = 76; 20%) were the most frequently recorded types of infections. RAAPs are common in German hospitals. Reducing redundant antimicrobial coverage should be a key component of future antimicrobial stewardship activities.

Lean back and wait for the alarm? Testing an automated alarm system for nosocomial outbreaks to provide support for infection control professionals.

INTRODUCTION: Outbreaks of communicable diseases in hospitals need to be quickly detected in order to enable immediate control. The increasing digitalization of hospital data processing offers potential solutions for automated outbreak detection systems (AODS). Our goal was to assess a newly developed AODS. METHODS: Our AODS was based on the diagnostic results of routine clinical microbiological examinations. The system prospectively counted detections per bacterial pathogen over time for the years 2016 and 2017. The baseline data covers data from 2013-2015. The comparative analysis was based on six different mathematical algorithms (normal/Poisson and score prediction intervals, the early aberration reporting system, negative binomial CUSUMs, and the Farrington algorithm). The clusters automatically detected were then compared with the results of our manual outbreak detection system. RESULTS: During the analysis period, 14 different hospital outbreaks were detected as a result of conventional manual outbreak detection. Based on the pathogens' overall incidence, outbreaks were divided into two categories: outbreaks with rarely detected pathogens (sporadic) and outbreaks with often detected pathogens (endemic). For outbreaks with sporadic pathogens, the detection rate of our AODS ranged from 83% to 100%. Every algorithm detected 6 of 7 outbreaks with a sporadic pathogen. The AODS identified outbreaks with an endemic pathogen were at a detection rate of 33% to 100%. For endemic pathogens, the results varied based on the epidemiological characteristics of each outbreak and pathogen. CONCLUSION: AODS for hospitals based on routine microbiological data is feasible and can provide relevant benefits for infection control teams. It offers in-time automated notification of suspected pathogen clusters especially for sporadically occurring pathogens. However, outbreaks of endemically detected pathogens need further individual pathogen-specific and setting-specific adjustments.

The quality of antimicrobial prescribing in acute care hospitals: results derived from a national point prevalence survey, Germany, 2016.

BackgroundRobust data on the quality of antimicrobial prescriptions in German acute care hospitals are scarce. To establish and implement antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) measures and to increase prudent antimicrobial use (AMU), the identification of appropriate process and quality indicators is pertinent.AimOur main objective was to identify parameters associated with adequate AMU and inadequate AMU by analysing point prevalence data. Our secondary goal was to describe the current state of AMS implementation in Germany.MethodsA national point prevalence survey for healthcare-associated infections and AMU was conducted in German hospitals in 2016. Data on structure and process parameters were also collected. Recorded antimicrobial prescriptions were divided into adequate, inadequate and undefinable AMU. A multivariable linear regression analysis was performed to examine the correlation of selected structure and process parameters with the adequacy of recorded antimicrobials.ResultsData from 218 acute care hospitals, 64,412 patients and 22,086 administered antimicrobials were included. Multivariable linear regression analysis revealed that documentation of a reason for AMU in the patient notes increased the likelihood of adequate AMU and decreased the likelihood of inadequate AMU significantly (p < 0.001), while tertiary care hospital type had the opposite effect (p < 0.001).ConclusionThrough associating structural and process parameters with adequacy of AMU, we identified parameters that increased the odds of prudent AMU. Documentation was a key element for improving AMU. Revealed deficits regarding the implementation of AMS in German hospitals concerning dedicated staff for AMS activities and establishment of regular AMU training and AMU audits should be tackled.

Linezolid use in German acute care hospitals: results from two consecutive national point prevalence surveys.

Background: Linezolid belongs to a reserve group of antibiotics. In recent years, reports on linezolid resistance in gram-positive cocci have become more frequent. Overuse of linezolid is a relevant factor for resistance development. The objective of this study was to describe current prescription practices of linezolid in German hospitals and identify targets for antimicrobial stewardship interventions. Methods: We analyzed all linezolid prescriptions from the datasets of the consecutive national point prevalence surveys performed in German hospitals in 2011 and 2016. In both surveys, data on healthcare-associated infections and antimicrobial use were collected following the methodology of the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Results: Overall, the percentage of linezolid among all documented antimicrobials increased significantly from 2011 to 2016 (p < 0.01). In 2011, 0.3% (119 of 41,539) patients received linezolid, in 2016 this proportion was significantly higher (0.4%; 255 of 64,412 patients; p < 0.01). In 2016, intensive care units (ICUs) were the wards most frequently prescribing linezolid. The largest proportion of patients receiving linezolid were non-ICU patients. Roughly 38% of linezolid prescriptions were for treatment of skin/soft tissue and respiratory tract infections. In 2016, linezolid was administered parenterally in 70% (n = 179) of cases. Multivariable analysis showed that the ward specialty ICU posed an independent risk factor, while Northern and Southwestern regions in Germany were independent protective factors for a high rate of linezolid prescriptions. Conclusions: In conclusion, we detected potentials for improving linezolid prescription practices in German hospitals. Given the emergence of linezolid resistance, optimization of linezolid use must be a target of future antimicrobial stewardship activities.

The Association of Climatic Factors with Rates of Surgical Site Infections: 17 Years' Data From Hospital Infection Surveillance.

BACKGROUND: Surgical site infections (SSI) are among the most common healthcare- associated infections. The aim of our explorative study was to determine how selected climatic factors are associated with SSI rates. METHODS: SSI rates were calculated for operative procedures included in the surgi- cal site infection surveillance component (OP-KISS) of the German Nosocomial Infection Surveillance System (Krankenhaus-Infektions-Surveillance-System, KISS) during the years from 2000 to 2016. The surgeries were associated with department-related and patient-related data. Data of the German Meteorological Service (Deutscher Wetterdienst, DWD), including outdoor temperature and rainfall, were used to analyze the association between climatic factors and rates of SSI. Analyses focused on temperature which showed strong correlations with other climatic parameters. A descriptive analysis was performed, using the chi-squared test. Adjusted odds ratios (AORs) were calculated for SSI rates in relation to tem- perature, using a multivariable logistic regression model. RESULTS: For the altogether 2 004 793 included operative procedures, 32 118 SSIs were documented. Temperatures ≥ 20 °C were associated with a significantly higher occurrence of SSI compared to temperatures <5 °C (AOR: 1.13; 95% confi- dence intervals [1.06; 1.20]). This increase was found for gram-positive pathogens (AOR: 1.13 [1.03; 1.23]) and, even more pronounced, for gram-negative pathogens (AOR: 1.20 [1.07; 1.35]). The association was strongest for superficial SSI caused by gram-negative pathogens (AOR: 1.38 [1.16; 1.64]). CONCLUSION: An association between climatic factors and SSI rates was demon- strated. The predicted rise in global temperatures by up to 4 °C by the end of this century compared to preindustrial levels may increase the likelihood of SSI and should be taken into consideration in future preventive strategies.

Gender-related risk factors for surgical site infections. Results from 10 years of surveillance in Germany.

Background: Surgical site infections (SSI) are among the most frequently occurring healthcare-associated infections worldwide. Various analyses to determine risk factors have been conducted in the past, generally attributing a higher SSI-risk to male patients. However, when focusing on specific procedures, this is not always true. Our objective was to identify for which procedures male or female sex represents an independent risk factor for SSI and which parameters may explain these differences. Methods: We used the database of surgical procedures from the German national nosocomial infection surveillance system. We included procedures conducted between 2008 and 2017. We excluded procedures solely executed for one sex (e.g. mastectomy) and procedures with 20,000 or fewer operations. The observed outcome was the occurrence of SSI. All models were adjusted for confounders, which were eliminated with backward selection. The following factors were included in the analysis: age, ASA score, wound contamination class, duration of surgery, and season. All models contained the investigated factor sex. Results: Sixteen procedure types with 1,266,782 individual procedures and 18,824 SSI were included. Overall, the incidence rate ratio and the adjusted odds ratio for SSI were significantly higher for male patients. The included individual procedures were grouped into five surgical categories. For orthopedics and traumatology as well as abdominal surgery, SSI-rates were significantly higher for male patients. For heart and vascular surgery, SSI-rates were significantly higher for female patients. Other included surgical categories and individual procedures yielded diverse results. Similar results were found when solely analyzing deep and organ-space SSI. Multivariable analysis for attributable gender-related risk factors revealed differences with regard to underlying risk factors. Conclusions: SSI-rates differ by sex for certain procedures. When examining underlying risk factors, differences between male and female patients can be demonstrated. Our analysis considered a limited number of parameters, which were not sufficient to fully explain the observed differences. Further studies are required to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the topic and to include gender-specific aspects into future SSI-prevention strategies.

A national survey on the implementation of key infection prevention and control structures in German hospitals: results from 736 hospitals conducting the WHO Infection Prevention and Control Assessment Framework (IPCAF).

Background: Healthcare-associated infections (HAI) pose a burden on healthcare providers worldwide. To prevent HAI and strengthen infection prevention and control (IPC) structures, the WHO has developed a variety of tools and guidelines. Recently, the WHO released the Infection Prevention and Control Assessment Framework (IPCAF), a questionnaire-like tool designed for assessing IPC structures at the facility level. The IPCAF reflects the eight WHO core components of IPC. Data on the implementation of IPC measures in German hospitals are scarce. Therefore, it was our objective to utilize the IPCAF in order to gather information on the current state of IPC implementation in German hospitals, as well as to promote the IPCAF to a broad audience. Methods: The National Reference Center for Surveillance of Nosocomial Infections (NRZ) sent a translated version of the IPCAF to 1472 acute care hospitals in Germany. Data entry and transfer to the NRZ was done electronically between October and December 2018. The IPCAF was conceived in a way that depending on the selected answers a score was calculated, with 0 being the lowest possible and 800 the highest possible score. Depending on the overall score, the IPCAF allocated hospitals to four different "IPC levels": inadequate, basic, intermediate, and advanced. Results: A total of 736 hospitals provided a complete dataset and were included in the data analysis. The overall median score of all hospitals was 690, which corresponded to an advanced level of IPC. Only three hospitals (0.4%) fell into the category "basic", with 111 hospitals (15.1%) being "intermediate" and 622 hospitals (84.5%) being "advanced". In no case was the category "inadequate" allocated. More profound differences were found between the respective core components. Components on multimodal strategies and workload, staffing, ward design and bed occupancy revealed the lowest scores. Conclusions: IPC key aspects in general are well established in Germany. Potentials for improvement were identified particularly with regard to workload and staffing. Insufficient implementation of multimodal strategies was found to be another relevant deficit. Our survey represents a successful attempt at promoting the IPCAF and encouraging hospitals to utilize WHO tools for self-assessment.