A physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) parent-metabolite model of the chemotherapeutic zoptarelin doxorubicin-integration of in vitro results, Phase I and Phase II data and model application for drug-drug interaction potential analysis.

PURPOSE: Zoptarelin doxorubicin is a fusion molecule of the chemotherapeutic doxorubicin and a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone receptor (LHRHR) agonist, designed for drug targeting to LHRHR positive tumors. The aim of this study was to establish a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) parent-metabolite model of zoptarelin doxorubicin and to apply it for drug-drug interaction (DDI) potential analysis. METHODS: The PBPK model was built in a two-step procedure. First, a model for doxorubicin was developed, using clinical data of a doxorubicin study arm. Second, a parent-metabolite model for zoptarelin doxorubicin was built, using clinical data of three different zoptarelin doxorubicin studies with a dosing range of 10-267 mg/m2, integrating the established doxorubicin model. DDI parameters determined in vitro were implemented to predict the impact of zoptarelin doxorubicin on possible victim drugs. RESULTS: In vitro, zoptarelin doxorubicin inhibits the drug transporters organic anion-transporting polypeptide 1B3 (OATP1B3) and organic cation transporter 2 (OCT2). The model was applied to evaluate the in vivo inhibition of these transporters in a generic manner, predicting worst-case scenario decreases of 0.5% for OATP1B3 and of 2.5% for OCT2 transport rates. Specific DDI simulations using PBPK models of simvastatin (OATP1B3 substrate) and metformin (OCT2 substrate) predict no significant changes of the plasma concentrations of these two victim drugs during co-administration. CONCLUSIONS: The first whole-body PBPK model of zoptarelin doxorubicin and its active metabolite doxorubicin has been successfully established. Zoptarelin doxorubicin shows no potential for DDIs via OATP1B3 and OCT2.

Phospho-Akt overexpression is prognostic and can be used to tailor the synergistic interaction of Akt inhibitors with gemcitabine in pancreatic cancer.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing evidence of a constitutive activation of Akt in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), associated with poor prognosis and chemoresistance. Therefore, we evaluated the expression of phospho-Akt in PDAC tissues and cells, and investigated molecular mechanisms influencing the therapeutic potential of Akt inhibition in combination with gemcitabine. METHODS: Phospho-Akt expression was evaluated by immunohistochemistry in tissue microarrays (TMAs) with specimens tissue from radically-resected patients (n = 100). Data were analyzed by Fisher and log-rank test. In vitro studies were performed in 14 PDAC cells, including seven primary cultures, characterized for their Akt1 mRNA and phospho-Akt/Akt levels by quantitative-RT-PCR and immunocytochemistry. Growth inhibitory effects of Akt inhibitors and gemcitabine were evaluated by SRB assay, whereas modulation of Akt and phospho-Akt was investigated by Western blotting and ELISA. Cell cycle perturbation, apoptosis-induction, and anti-migratory behaviors were studied by flow cytometry, AnnexinV, membrane potential, and migration assay, while pharmacological interaction with gemcitabine was determined with combination index (CI) method. RESULTS: Immunohistochemistry of TMAs revealed a correlation between phospho-Akt expression and worse outcome, particularly in patients with the highest phospho-Akt levels, who had significantly shorter overall and progression-free-survival. Similar expression levels were detected in LPC028 primary cells, while LPC006 were characterized by low phospho-Akt. Remarkably, Akt inhibitors reduced cancer cell growth in monolayers and spheroids and synergistically enhanced the antiproliferative activity of gemcitabine in LPC028, while this combination was antagonistic in LPC006 cells. The synergistic effect was paralleled by a reduced expression of ribonucleotide reductase, potentially facilitating gemcitabine cytotoxicity. Inhibition of Akt decreased cell migration and invasion, which was additionally reduced by the combination with gemcitabine. This combination significantly increased apoptosis, associated with induction of caspase-3/6/8/9, PARP and BAD, and inhibition of Bcl-2 and NF-kB in LPC028, but not in LPC006 cells. However, targeting the key glucose transporter Glut1 resulted in similar apoptosis induction in LPC006 cells. CONCLUSIONS: These data support the analysis of phospho-Akt expression as both a prognostic and a predictive biomarker, for the rational development of new combination therapies targeting the Akt pathway in PDAC. Finally, inhibition of Glut1 might overcome resistance to these therapies and warrants further studies.

New ligands of the ghrelin receptor based on the 1,2,4-triazole scaffold by introduction of a second chiral center.

Introducing a second chiral center on our previously described 1,2,4-triazole, allowed us to increase diversity and elongate the 'C-terminal part' of the molecule. Therefore, we were able to explore mimics of the substance P analogs described as inverse agonists. Some compounds presented affinities in the nanomolar range and potent biological activities, while one exhibited a partial inverse agonist behavior similar to a Substance P analog.

New trisubstituted 1,2,4-triazoles as ghrelin receptor antagonists.

Ghrelin receptor ligands based on a trisubstituted 1,2,4-triazole scaffold were recently synthesized and evaluated for their in vitro affinity for the GHS-R1a receptor and their biological activity. In this study, replacement of the α-aminoisobutyryl (Aib) moiety (a common feature present in numerous growth hormone secretagogues described in the literature) by aromatic and heteroaromatic groups was explored. We found potent antagonists incorporating the picolinic moiety in place of the Aib moiety. In an attempt to increase affinity and activity of our lead compound 2, we explored the modulation of the pyridine ring. Herein we report the design and the structure-activity relationships study of these new ghrelin receptor ligands.

Discovery of (7-aryl-1,5-naphthyridin-2-yl)ureas as dual inhibitors of ERK2 and Aurora B kinases with antiproliferative activity against cancer cells.

A novel series of (7-aryl-1,5-naphthyridin-2-yl)ureas was discovered as dual ERK2 and Aurora B kinases inhibitors. Several analogues were active at micromolar and submicromolar range against ERK2 and Aurora B, associated with very promising antiproliferative activity toward various cancer cell lines. Synthesis, structure activity relationship and docking study are reported. In vitro ADME properties and safety data are also discussed.

Current view on the mechanism of action of perifosine in cancer.

Perifosine treatment exhibits a complex molecular response including the inhibition of Akt or the induction of apoptosis via clustering of death receptors in lipid rafts. However, the molecular response can vary between different tumor entities and the contribution of each target pathway to the activity of Perifosine might be distinct depending on the tumor entity or the agent combined with Perifosine. In this review we discuss the current view on the mechanism of action of perifosine in cancer and the contribution of the molecular targets of Perifosine to its activity.

Discovery of 7-aryl-substituted (1,5-naphthyridin-4-yl)ureas as aurora kinase inhibitors.

As part of our research projects to identify new chemical entities of biological interest, we developed a synthetic approach and the biological evaluation of (7-aryl-1,5-naphthyridin-4-yl)ureas as a novel class of Aurora kinase inhibitors for the treatment of malignant diseases based on pathological cell proliferation. 1,5-Naphthyridine derivatives showed excellent inhibitory activities toward Aurora kinases A and B, and the most active compound, 1-cyclopropyl-3-[7-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-1,5-naphthyridin-4-yl]urea (49), displayed IC50 values of 13 and 107 nM against Aurora kinases A and B, respectively. In addition, the selectivity toward a panel of seven cancer-related protein kinases was highlighted. In vitro ADME properties were also determined in order to rationalize the difficulties in correlating antiproliferative activity with Aurora kinase inhibition. Finally, the good safety profile of these compounds imparts promising potential for their further development as anticancer agents.

Synthesis and antiproliferative activity of new cytotoxic tri- and tetraazabenzo[3,2-a]fluorene-5,6-dione derivatives.

A new series of substituted tri-/tetraazabenzo[3,2-a]fluorene-5,6-diones and their corresponding oxime derivatives have been synthesized and spectroscopically characterized. The antiproliferative activities of all compounds were evaluated on at least three different cell lines.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of new cytotoxic indazolo[4,3-gh]isoquinolinone derivatives.

A series of indazolo[4,3-gh]isoquinolinones derivatives have been synthesized to decrease cardiotoxic side effects in comparison to Mitoxantrone. The antiproliferative effects of different side chains were investigated and tested on at least four different cell lines of cervix, ovarian, CNS, NSCLC (non-small-cell lung cancer) and colon carcinoma. In addition to antiproliferative activities, influence on cell cycle and intercalation behavior have been tested.

In vitro effects of perifosine, bortezomib and lenalidomide against hematopoietic progenitor cells from healthy donors.

The novel AKT inhibitor perifosine possesses myelopoiesis-stimulating effects in rodents. We studied the in vitro effects of the novel agents perifosine, bortezomib and lenalidomide in addition to adriamycin against normal human hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPC) using different clonogenic and non-clonogenic assays. All agents inhibited colony-forming unit (CFU) formation, perifosine inhibiting mainly CFU-granulocyte/macrophage formation and the other agents burst-forming unit-erythroid formation. Perifosine combined with lenalidomide or adriamycin tended to act antagonistically in suppressing CFU formation. Despite their inhibition of CFU formation, perifosine, bortezomib and lenalidomide induced only slight or moderate cytotoxicity in CD34(+) selected HPC, as assessed using different assays such as flow cytometry-based detection of activated caspases and immunohistochemistry studies (e.g., Ki-67 staining). In contrast to its myelopoiesis-stimulating effects in rodents, perifosine--like bortezomib and lenalidomide--suppresses the clonogenic potential of HPC from healthy donors in vitro and thus probably plays no role in preventing neutropenia or in shorting its duration after intensive chemotherapy. However, all these novel agents typically induce only slight or moderate suppression of the clonogenic potential or loss of viability of normal HPC at clinically achievable plasma concentrations, assuming that hematoxicity is manageable and functional HPC can be collected after treatment with these compounds.

In vitro cytotoxicity of the novel antimyeloma agents perifosine, bortezomib and lenalidomide against different cell lines.

The novel AKT inhibitor perifosine, a synthetic alkylphospholipid, is currently being investigated in clinical trials for the treatment of different hematological and oncological malignancies. The in vitro cytotoxicity of perifosine, bortezomib and lenalidomide against 6 cell lines derived from hematological malignancies was investigated using trypan blue staining, flow cytometry-based detection of activated caspases, Annexin V assays, immunohistochemistry studies (KI-67 and caspase-3 staining) and the immature-myeloid-information (IMI) technique. Perifosine and bortezomib induced concentration- and time-dependent cytotoxicity in all cell lines tested. Perifosine together with bortezomib largely exerted additive or synergistic effects with combination indices ranging from 1.13 to 0.22 for combined efficacies of 25% to 75% after 24-hour incubation. Lenalidomide-triggered cytotoxicity was low in all cell lines tested with any assay (less than 10% compared to the negative control). Finally, perifosine, but not bortezomib or lenalidomide, significantly increased the number of cells detected in the IMI channel. Perifosine and bortezomib- but not lenalidomide- trigger substantial cytotoxicity by caspase activation and mainly act additively or synergistically. The IMI technique might be a useful tool for studying cytotoxicity of agents like perifosine that interact mainly with the cellular membrane.

N-benzoylated phenoxazines and phenothiazines: synthesis, antiproliferative activity, and inhibition of tubulin polymerization.

A total of 53 N-benzoylated phenoxazines and phenothiazines, including their S-oxidized analogues, were synthesized and evaluated for antiproliferative activity, interaction with tubulin, and cell cycle effects. Potent inhibitors of multiple cancer cell lines emerged with the 10-(4-methoxybenzoyl)-10H-phenoxazine-3-carbonitrile (33b, IC(50) values in the range of 2-15 nM) and the isovanillic analogue 33c. Seventeen compounds strongly inhibited tubulin polymerization with activities higher than or comparable to those of the reference compounds such as colchicine. Concentration-dependent flow cytometric studies revealed that inhibition of K562 cell growth was associated with an arrest in the G2/M phases of the cell cycle, indicative of mitotic blockade. Structure-activity relationship studies showed that best potencies were obtained with agents bearing a methoxy group placed para at the terminal phenyl ring and a 3-cyano group in the phenoxazine. A series of analogues highlight not only the phenoxazine but also the phenothiazine structural scaffold as valuable pharmacophores for potent tubulin polymerization inhibitors, worthy of further investigation.

Synthesis and antiproliferative activity of new cytotoxic azanaphthoquinone pyrrolo-annelated derivatives: Part II.

A series of 6-azanaphthoquinone pyrrolo-annelated derivatives carrying different basic side chains have been synthesized. The antiproliferative activities of all compounds were evaluated on at least four different cell lines with Mitoxantrone as reference compound. Cytotoxic effects and DNA intercalation behavior were investigated.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of new cytotoxic azanaphthoquinone pyrrolo-annelated derivatives.

A series of azanaphthoquinone pyrrolo-annelated derivatives attached to basic side chains have been synthesized. The antiproliferative activities of all compounds were evaluated on at least four different cell lines. The effects on cell cycle and intercalation were investigated.

GnRH-II antagonists induce apoptosis in human endometrial, ovarian, and breast cancer cells via activation of stress-induced MAPKs p38 and JNK and proapoptotic protein Bax.

Recently, we could show that gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-II antagonists induce apoptosis in human endometrial, ovarian, and breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we have ascertained receptor binding and effects of GnRH-II antagonists on mitogenic signal transduction and on activation of proapoptotic protein Bax. The GnRH-II antagonists tested showed EC50 values for GnRH-I receptor binding in the range of 1 to 2 nmol/L. The GnRH-II agonist [D-Lys6]GnRH-II showed an EC50 value for GnRH-I receptor binding of approximately 1,000 nmol/L. Agonistic activity on GnRH-I receptor function with an EC50 of 13 nmol/L has been determined for [D-Lys6]GnRH-II. Antagonistic activities with EC50 values in the range of 1 nmol/L were determined for the GnRH-II antagonists. Treatment of human endometrial, ovarian, and breast cancer cells with GnRH-II antagonists resulted in time-dependent activation of stress-induced mitogen-activated protein kinases p38 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase. In addition, treatment with GnRH-II antagonists induced time-dependent activation of proapoptotic protein Bax. GnRH-II antagonists are not involved in activation of protein kinase B/Akt or extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2. The GnRH-II antagonists tested had similar binding affinities to the GnRH-I receptor comparable with that of GnRH-I antagonist Cetrorelix. Referring to the cyclic AMP response element reporter gene activation assay, the GnRH-II agonist [D-Lys6]GnRH-II has to be classified as an agonist at the GnRH-I receptor, whereas the GnRH-II antagonists tested are clear antagonists at the GnRH-I receptor. GnRH-II antagonists induce apoptotic cell death in human endometrial, ovarian, and breast cancer cells via activation of stress-induced mitogen-activated protein kinases p38 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase followed by activation of proapoptotic protein Bax.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel cytotoxic azanaphthoquinone annelated pyrrolo oximes.

Two series of azanaphthoquinone annelated pyrrolo oximes have been synthesized. The antiproliferative activities of 10 compounds were evaluated on at least four different cell lines. One series of pyrrolo derivatives showed high cytotoxic activity. The effects on cell cycle and caspase activity were investigated. Compounds 9a and 9b showed an accumulation of cells in G2/M phase. Substantial and dose-dependent caspase activity was found after treatment of cells with 9a and 9b. This indicates an apoptosis inducing property of these compounds.

Mitogen-activated protein kinases interacting kinases are autoinhibited by a reprogrammed activation segment.

Autoinhibition is a recurring mode of protein kinase regulation and can be based on diverse molecular mechanisms. Here, we show by crystal structure analysis, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based nucleotide affinity studies and rational mutagenesis that nonphosphorylated mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases interacting kinase (Mnk) 1 is autoinhibited by conversion of the activation segment into an autoinhibitory module. In a Mnk1 crystal structure, the activation segment is repositioned via a Mnk-specific sequence insertion at the N-terminal lobe with the following consequences: (i) the peptide substrate binding site is deconstructed, (ii) the interlobal cleft is narrowed, (iii) an essential Lys-Glu pair is disrupted and (iv) the magnesium-binding loop is locked into an ATP-competitive conformation. Consistently, deletion of the Mnk-specific insertion or removal of a conserved phenylalanine side chain, which induces a blockade of the ATP pocket, increase the ATP affinity of Mnk1. Structural rearrangements required for the activation of Mnks are apparent from the cocrystal structure of a Mnk2 D228G -staurosporine complex and can be modeled on the basis of crystal packing interactions. Our data suggest a novel regulatory mechanism specific for the Mnk subfamily.

Crystal structures of the Mnk2 kinase domain reveal an inhibitory conformation and a zinc binding site.

Human mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK)-interacting kinases 1 and 2 (Mnk1 and Mnk2) target the translational machinery by phosphorylation of the eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E). Here, we present the 2.1 A crystal structure of a nonphosphorylated Mnk2 fragment that encompasses the kinase domain. The results show Mnk-specific features such as a zinc binding motif and an atypical open conformation of the activation segment. In addition, the ATP binding pocket contains an Asp-Phe-Asp (DFD) in place of the canonical magnesium binding Asp-Phe-Gly (DFG) motif. The phenylalanine of this motif sticks into the ATP binding pocket and blocks ATP binding as observed with inhibitor bound and, thus, inactive p38 kinase. Replacement of the DFD by the canonical DFG motif affects the conformation of Mnk2, but not ATP binding and kinase activity. The results suggest that the ATP binding pocket and the activation segment of Mnk2 require conformational switches to provide kinase activity.